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MODERN TIMES 

AND THE LIVING PAST 



BY 



HENRY W. ELSON, A.M., Litt.D. 

PRESIDEXT OK THIEL COLLEGE, GREENVILLE, PA. 
FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, 
OHIO UNIVERSITY, ATHENS, OHIO 




AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO 

BOSTON ATLANTA 






Copyright, 1921, by 
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

All rights reserved 

FI.SON, MODERN TIMES 

w. p. I 



JAN 29 !92i 



g)CU605581 



PREFACE 

To present the history of the world in a single volume and to 
make the story at the same time attractive and useful to j'oung 
readers is a most diflficult task. Onlj^ the general sweep of the 
great current of events can be followed ; only the salient features 
that contributed most to the development of the nations can be 
included. 

The two questions that must constantly be in the mind of the 
writer are, first, what to choose for the text, and second, how to 
present it. As to the first, he must be able to appraise historic 
values ; he must present that which will lead the reader to visual- 
ize the past so as best to grasp the problems that contributed 
most to the social, moral, economic, and political development 
of the peoples whom he is studying. Thus bj' acquiring a correct 
knowledge of his historical inheritance, the reader will understand 
and appreciate the principles on which are based the ideals and 
institutions of the civilization of the present. 

As to the second, the method of presenting histor}', especially 
for young readers, these facts must be borne in mind : The great 
majority of high-school pupils will never become specialists in 
liistorj'. Intensive scientific study from the sources is therefore 
out of place in the secondary schools, except for an occasional 
diversion. It is recommended that classes be led to dip now and 
then into the source fountains ; but if confined to this form of 
study, pupils will leave school with no knowledge of the great 
march of human events, and with little or no interest to continue 
the study in the future. Moreover, they will miss the culture 
and the intense interest that jiertains to the great human story. 

In preparing this book I have given large space to the social 
and industrial life of the people, their achievements and their 
progress; at the same time t haw endeavored to retain the 
thread of the political narrative, especially in llu' accounts of 

iii 



iv Preface 

ancient Greece and Rome and of the great nations of modem 
Europe. The study of modern Europe is given in cross sections 
with constant reference to the relations of the various countries 
with one another. As the history of our own country is a study 
by itself, it is not included in this volume. 

More space has been given to the study of England than to! 
that of any other country, because of its greater importance td 
American students, and in order to obviate the necessity or 
making it a separate study in the crowded curriculum of the high 
school. 

To the modern period I have given much greater space than 
to the ancient and medieval periods. Every intelligent citizen 
must have some knowledge of what we owe to the far past ; but 
more vital is a knowledge of the great problems of our own times, 
and to these a fuller treatment has been given. 

The wars of the world could not be omitted because of the 
great part they have played in human progress, but the account 
of them has been condensed to the smallest space. 

Wherever possible I have kept the human interest in the fore- 
ground and have deemed it best to give considerable space to the 
leading characters in history at the expense of leaving unmentioned 
the names of many who usually find a place even in condensed 
histories. 

The same is true in the narration of events. Great numbers of 
facts usually told in books of this character have been omitted 
to gain space for a fuller treatment of the greater movements 
that have most affected the development of the nations. 

My constant aim has been to present a book that will be easy 
to teach and at the same time interesting as well as useful to the 
youthful reader. It is hoped, furthermore, that this book may be 
useful to the general reader, may prove a pleasant review to those 
who already know the history, and may furnish to busy people, 
who have not the time to pursue the subject further, an intelligent 
elemental knowledge of the great story of the development of 
human civilization. 

Henry W. Elson. 



CONTENTS 



Chapter I. Prehistoric Man i 

Stages of Development — Races and Languages — A View of Pre- 
historic Europe. 

THE ORIENTAL PEOPLES 

Chapter IL Ancient Egypt 23 

The Land and the People — Government and Religion — Civilization 
and Progress. 

Chapter III. The Tigris-Euphrates Valley; Palestine . 38 
The Lihabitants of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley — Life and Progress of 
the Mesopotamian Peoples — The Hebrews and Phoenicians. 

ANCIENT GREECE 

Chapter IV. Prehistoric Greece 60 

The Land and the Early Inhabitants — Mythical Heroes and Legends 
— Greek Religion — Panhellenic Interests. 

Chapter V. Sparta and Athens; Greek Colonization . . 78 
Sparta — Life in Athens — Greek Colonization. 



Chapter VI. The Brilliant Age — Literature, Philosophy, 

Fine Arts 

Athens in the Age of Pericles — Greek Architecture and Sculpture — 
Greek Literature — The Great Philosophers. 



93 



Chapter VII. Wars of the Greeks 108 

The Persian Wars — Civil War in Greece. 

Chapter VIII. Alexander the Great 122 

King Philip and Macedonia — Alexander. 

ANCIENT ROME 

Chapter IX. Early Rome 133 

Prehistoric Italy — Roman Religion and Social Life — The Govern- 
ment and the Army. 

Chapter X. Roman Conquests 149 

Conquest of Italy — The Punic Wars (264-146 B.C.) — Coii;|uost of 
Mediterranean Lands. 

Chapter XI. Life and Society in Rome 165 

Change in Roman Customs — • Reforms of the Gracchi — The Roman 
Provinces. 



VI Contents 

PACE 

Chapter XII. The Century of C/Esar 173 

Men and Events before the Time of Caesar — Julius Caesar — Rise of 
Octavius. 

Chapter XIII. The Age of Augustus 186 

Augustus and the Germans — Beginnings of Christianity — Life and 
Society under the Empire — Roman Literature. 

Chapter XIV. Roman Imperialism and the Triumph of Chris- 
tianity 199 

The City and the Empire — Triumph of Christianity. 

THE TEUTONIC PEOPLES 

Chapter XV. Fall of Rome and the Migration or the Nations 210 
The Barbarians and the Roman Empire — Review of the Ancient 

Nations. 

Chapter XVI. Rise of the Papacy; Mohammedanism . . 222 
Rise of the Papacy — Mohammedanism and the Arab Invasion. 

Chapter XVII. Charlemagne and his Times . . . .231 

THE LIFE OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

Chapter XVIII. Feudalism and Chivalry .... 238 

Feudalism — Chivalry. 

Chapter XIX. Papacy and Empire; the Crusades . . . 250 
The Papacy and the Empire — The Crusades. 

THE NATIONS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

Chapter XX. England in the Middle Ages .... 264 
Alfred the Great (871-901) — The Norman Conquest, 1066 — The 
Plantagenet Kings and the Great Charter — The Rise of the Jury 
System and of Parliament. 

Chapter XXI. Building of the Nations 280 

Decline of Feudalism ; Growth of Cities — Beginnngs of the French 
Nation — The Hundred Years' War — Germany in the Middle Ages — 
Italy — Formation of the Kingdom of Spain — Scandinavians and Slavs. 

Chapter XXII. Civilization and Progress during the Middle 

Ages 300 

Language and Literature — The Universities and Education — Science 
and Superstitions — Discoveries and Explorations — The Renais- 
sance ; Art and Architecture — Summary of the Middle Ages. 

THE PERIOD OF THE REFORMATION 

Chapter XXIII. The Protestant Reformation in Germany . 317 
European Conditions — Beginnings of the Reformation — Martin 
Luther (1483-1546) — Charles V and the Reformation. 



Contents vii 



Chapter XXIV. The Reformation in Other Lands; the 

Counter Reformation :i,^^ 

Switzerland — England and Other Lands — The Counter Reformation. 

Chapter XXV. The England of Elizabeth's Time . . . .351 
The Reign of Queen Mary — ^The Reign of Queen Elizabeth (1558- 
1603). 

Chapter XXVI. The Religious Wars 363 

The Huguenot Wars in France — Revolt of the Netherlands — The 
Thirty Years' War, 161 8-1 648. 

Chapter XXVII. The Stuarts and the Puritans in Englantd . 379 
The Reign of James I (1603-1625) — Charles I and the Civil War, 1625- 
1649 — Oliver Cromwell and the Commonwealth — The Restoration 
and the Revolution — William and Mary. 

THE OLD REGIME 
Chapter XXVIII. France and Loms XIV 403 

Chapter XXIX. Rise of Prussia and Russia .... 415 
Prussia — Beginnings of Russia. 

Chapter XXX. France and England in the Eighteenth Cen- 
tury 426 

Colonial Expansion — Industrial Progress. 

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 

Chapter XXXI. Eve of the French Revolution . . . 433 
Condition of France — The Great Writers — The Benevolent Despots. 

Chapter XXXII. The Early Period of the French Revolution 441 
The King and the States-General — Work of the National .\ssembly. 

Chapter XXXIII. Fall of the Monarchy; First French 

Republic 459 

The Legislative Assembly, October i, 1791, to September 20, 1702 — 
The National Convention; the Reign of Terror. 

Chapter XXXIV. Napoleon Bonaparte 472 

Bonaparte Becomes Master of France — The Consulate ; Napoleon 
in Peace — The Empire and the Napoleonic Wars — Decline and Fall 
of the Empire of Napoleon. 

Chapter XXXV. Europe after the Revolution . ■ 4Q2 

The Congress of Vienna; Changes in Europe — The Spirit of Reaction 
— Uprising in Southern Europ:- — France from 181 5 to 1830. 

Chapter XXXVI. The Industrial Revolution .... 502 
The Great Inventions — The Rise of the Factory' System — Im- 
provements in Transportation — Canals, Steamboats, Railways — 

Results of the Industrial Rex'olution. 



viii Contents 



THE PROGRESS OF DEMOCRACY 



PAGE 



Chapter XXXVII. Nineteenth Century Reforms in Great 

Britain 514 

Before the Great Reforms — Parliamentary Reform in 1832 — Aboli- 
tion of Slavery — Factory Reform — Repeal of the Corn Laws, 1846. 

Chapter XXXVIII. The Second Era or Revolution in Europe 528 
The Revolution of 1830 — The Revolution of 1848 in France — The 
Revolution of 1848 in Other Countries. 

Chapter XXXIX. Unification of Italy and Germany . . 546 
The Making of Modern Italy — Unifying of Germany ; War with 
France. 

Chapter XL. France after 1870 562 

The Third French Republic — The French Government — Progress 
at Home and Abroad. 

Chapter XLI. Germany after 1871 571 

Government of the German Empire — Germany from 1871 to 1914. 

Chapter XLII. Great Britain after 1850 584 

Disraeli and Gladstone — Ireland and the Irish — The British Colo- 
nial Empire — Close of the Victorian Era ; Later Events. 

Chapter XLIII. Russia and the Balkans 609 

Russia, the Leading Slav Nation — Turkey and the Balkans. 

Chapter XLIV. The Minor States of Western Europe . . 629 
Scandinavia — Holland, Belgium — Spain, Portugal, Switzerland. 

Chapter XLV. Advances in Government, Science, and In- 
dustry 637 

A Century of Revolution — Progress in Science and Industry. 

THE WORLD WAR 

Chapter XL VI. Causes and Beginnings of the World War . 646 
Historical Background — Invasion of Belgium and France. 

Chapter XL VII. The War in 19 15-19 17 660 

Russia, Turkey, and the Balkans — The Western Front, and War 
on the Sea — The War in 1917 — Modern Weapons of War. 

Chapter XLVIII. America in the War 675 

Great Preparations — The Great Final Drive : End of the War. 

Chapter XLIX. Results of the World War .... 698 
The Peace Treaties — The Nations After the War — International 
Problems. 

Chronology ix 

Index xv 



MODERN TIMES AND THE 
LIVING PAST 

CHxAPTER I 
PREHISTORIC MAN 

I. Stages of DEVELOPirENX 

1. Historic and Prehistoric Times. — There was a time, many 
ages ago, when not a man in the world could read. There were no 
books, no writing, no alphabet. At length, after thousands of 
years, we know not how many thousands, men began to invent an 
alphabet and to make books. They then began to leave a written 
record of their own doings. This we call Historj'. 

The long ages preceding the time when men learned to write are 
called Prehistoric Times. The period since men began to write 
is known as Historic Tim.es. 

The various nations emerged from the prehistoric period to the 
historic period at different times. The people of the Nile Valley 
and those of the Euphrates (u-fra'tez) Valley reached the historic 
period several thousand j^ears before the time of Christ (b.c), the 
Greeks about 900 B.C., the Romans 600 or 700 e.g., and the Teu- 
tonic peoples more than a thousand years later. There are many 
tribes on the earth who have not 3^et reached the historic stage. 
Among these are some of the American Indians, some Negroes of 
Africa, the " Black Fellows " of Australia, and many t^f the natives 
of the East Indies. 

2. Prehistoric Man and the Animals. — Through unknown 
ages man has made his way on and up to his present stage of en- 
lightenment. In many respects man is inferior to the lower ani- 
mals. He has not the strength of the ox nor the eyesight of the 
eagle ; he lacks the s])eed of the deer and the bloodiiound's |)o\ver 

I 



2 Prehistoric Man 

of scent. But he stands immeasurably above all these creatures 
because of his superior intelligence, his cunning, his reasoning 
power. Man is the only creature on the earth that uses tools or 
fire or wears clothing, the only creature that speaks an articulate 
language, the only creature that has a moral and religious instinct. 
All these characteristics of man developed slowly during the pre- 
historic ages. 

3. Epochs of Development. — The long period of man's ad- 
vance in the use of tools and weapons is divided into four ages : 
(i) the Rough Stone age, (2) the Polished Stone age, (3) the 
Bronze age, and (4) the Iron age. 

During the rough stone or paleolithic (pa-le-o-lith'ic, which 
means old stone) age man lived almost as the animals about him. 
His implements of war and of the chase were made of rough stone 
or of bones. Many thousands of such relics have been found in 
the past half century in France and other countries. As time 
passed man learned to polish the stones, to shape them into 
knives, arrowheads, and stone axes or " tomahawks," as the 
American Indians called them. This age of polished stone im- 
plements is sometimes called the neolithic (or new stone) age. 
Thus primeval man gradually passed from one " age " to another, 
but how many thousands of years he remained in each we have no 
means of knowing. 

At length man came to learn the use of metals, when and how no 
one knows. He first used copper, but copper is too soft to make 
good tools. In some way it was discovered that by mixing copper 
with a little tin a metal is formed which is much better than either 
for the making of implements. The mixture is called bronze. 
For many centuries, known as the bronze age, this metal was used 
in ever-increasing quantities. 

Finally, man discovered how to make use of iron, which is the 
most useful of all metals, and happily the most abundant. The 
use of metals has been of immense importance in the development 
of the human race. Without it our present civilization would be 
impossible. 




Implements of the Rough Stone Age 

Fist hatchets and knives. Such implements were made by splitting and chipping 

stones, using another stone as a hammer for this purpose. At the right of this 

picture a stone Icnife, in the lower hand, is being shaped by chipping blows struck 

with the stone in the upper hand. 



Knife, €3yfl 




hrai.^S.^ 







Implements of the Polished Stone .Age 

These tools, after being chipped roughly into shape, were finished by grinding and 

polishing. 




QuS^ 



Early Bronze and Iron Implements 



The handle of a hatchet was a forked or bent stick to which the hatchet was 
securely bound. 

3 



4 Prehistoric Man 

4. Economic Progress. — Again, with respect to man's eco- 
nomic progress, his methods of getting a Uving, we may divide his 
career into five stages : (i) the Hunting and Fishing stage ; (2) the 
Pastoral or Shepherd stage ; (3) the Agricultural stage ; (4) the 
Handicraft stage ; and (5) the Industrial stage. 




Man of the Late Neolithic Age 

Restoration made under the direction of a Belgian scientist. Notice the polished 

stone ax with wooden handle, the stone dagger, and the flint-headed arrows. 

Notice also that this man has un trimmed hair and beard, and wears a necklace 

of teeth — trophies of the chase. 

During the hunting and fishing stage men lived chiefly on game 
and fish. They lived in caves or rude huts, or they wandered 
from place to place without a fixed home. Passing from the rough 
stone age to the polished stone age during this time, they invented 
the bow and arrow, which they found of great advantage in the 
chase or when striving with an enemy in battle. They had no 



Stages of Development 5 

domestic animals except the dog, which, before being tamed, 
was a wild jackal or wolf. In this stage were many of the Ameri- 
can Indians when discovered by the white men. 

As time passed man discovered that it was far easier to make his 
living by keeping flocks and herds than by depending oh his skill 
in capturing wild animals. Perhaps a hunter returning from the 
chase brought with him a young calf or kid, which became a pet 
for his children. As the animal grew the idea occurred to the 
family that it would be better to domesticate and raise animals than 
to depend wholly on the chase. Thus began the shepherd stage. 
The dog was already man's faithful companion. Next came the 
cow, the sheep, and the goat to furnish him with milk and flesh, 
and the horse to bear his burdens as a faithful servant. From 
this time he moved about from place to place less than before. 
He had a better home and moved only now and then, seeking new 
pastures. A typical example of man in the pastoral stage was 
the patriarch Abraham, founder of the Jewish nation. 

Still later men became farmers and passed into the agricultural 
stage. From the beginning, no doubt, man had supplemented 
his diet of flesh with various grains, fruits, and vegetables as he 
found them growing wild. When he discovered that by culti- 
vating the soil he could raise far more and far better products 
than nature furnished direct to hand, he made an important step 
toward a better and higher mode of life. When men became 
farmers they built fixed homes and ceased to wander about. 

Year after year a man would till the same field and at length 
he came to look upon it as his own. His neighbors did the same 
and thus the private ownership of land came to be recognized. 
The agricultural stage is also characterized by the introduction 
of slavery. During the hunting and pastoral stages it was not 
practical to hold slaves, as a master could make use of them onh' 
by giving them arms and placing them on a level with himself; 
but when a man became a farmer he could make use of a captive 
by putting him to work. Most of the early slaves were captives 
taken in war. Before this stage captives were usually put to 



6 Prehistoric Man 

death. Plato was not far wrong in saying that the introduction 
of slavery was a humane act and an advance in civilization. 
The ancient Greeks and Romans and the European peoples of 
the Middle Ages lived in the agricultural stage. 

Next came the handicraft stage, during which man slowly 
advanced in the production of goods and implements. Manu- 
facturing was done by hand (as the word signifies) and each 
family supplied nearly all of its own wants. In this stage we 
find the American colonists before the war of the Revolution. 

Finally, we have the industrial stage. This is characterized 
by great inventions, by world-wide commercial activity, and by 
the production of goods in colossal quantities. It is the stage in 
which we are living. 

5. Political Evolution. — Man is a social being. Like the 
buffaloes that roam in herds, or the birds that flock together, 
man seeks the companionship of his fellows. It is impossible for 
men to live alone and independent of one another. The large 
group in which they live we call society. 

Social life is impossible without a code of rules or laws by which 
the individual is restrained from doing things that would injure 
his fellows, and through which the social body may do for the 
individual what he cannot do for himself, such as constructing 
roads and bridges, building schoolhouses, and defending him 
against enemies. The regulating of the social group is called 
government. All our nearest interests are inseparably connected 
with government. 

The origin of human government lies far back in the past, even 
beyond the dawn of history. The earliest governments were no 
doubt those of mere family groups, the father, sometimes the 
mother, being the head of the family or clan. Next followed the 
patriarchal form, which included also more distant kindred and 
servants, as in the case of Abraham. Later came the government 
of the tribe, a union of many clans or families, and finally the 
government of the state or nation, formed by the union and 
commingling of many tribes. The nations are usually separated 



Stages of De\'eloi)ment 



from one another by differences in language or religion, or by 
geographical boundaries. 

6. Language and Fire. — In modern times no tribe of men, 
however savage and wild, has been found without language. 
Man is not endowed by nature with the gift of language, but 
with the power of speech, and he must make his own language. 
The making of a language is a spon- 
taneous process covering a long 
period of time.' 

The use of fire is no doubt of very 
early origin ; as in the case of lan- 
guage, no tribe of men is without it. 
Perhaps the first use of fire was 
learned through fires caused by light- 
ning ; but at length man learned to 
kindle a fire by rubbing sticks to- 
gether. None of the lower animals 
has the intelligence to use fire. It 
is said that when an African traveler 
leaves his camp fire, the monkeys 
will sometimes gather about it and 
rub their hands in glee. As the fire 
dies out, they look on sadly, not one 
of them having intelligence enough 
to throw on a stick of wood. The 

ancient Greeks had a legend that the hero Prometheus (pro-me'- 
thus) brought fire from heaven and taught man its use ; and that 
for this he was severely punished, because the gods were jealous 
of the growing importance of man (sec. 56). 




Australian Firl: Drillkr 

This shows how an Australian na- 
tive, or " black fellow " kindles a 
fire. Our remote ancestors used 
similar methods. Some .\merican 
Boy Scouts can perform this feat. 



' It is well known that children will often make words with which to express 
themselves. From Albany, New York, an unusual example is reportetf. Two 
children but little past two years of age invented a considerable vocabulary and 
used it constantly in conversing with each other. Thus gar meant horse ; peer, 
a ball; odo, to send for; pama, to go to sleep, and so on. No doubt language was 
made in this way in the infancy of the human race. See Wright's Origin and An- 
tiquity of Man, p. 94. 



8 Prehistoric Man 

At length man discovered that by the use of fire he could harden 
clay and make pottery, could make his food better b}" cooking it, 
and could smelt ores and make metal tools and weapons. 






European Pottery of the Neolithic and Bronze x\.ges 

In the British Museum. Many such dishes have been foiind in burial mounds 

where they were no doubt placed, well filled, to provide food for the dead in their 

journey to the next world. 

It is a notable fact that the use of fire and metals, and 
language — all of which are indispensable to our modern civilized 
life — have come down to us as an inheritance from prehistoric 
times. 

7. History. — The known record of the ages of the past is 
what we call history. It is a study of mankind in groups or 
nations. But history is more than a record of events ; it is a study 
of human nature, the most interesting of all studies, and is second 
only to the study of the life of our times. 

History is like a coral growth. Each generation builds its 
fabric of civilization on that which it inherits from the past, and 
there are few things that we enjoy in our everyday life for which 
we are not indebted to the past. If you sit down to write a letter, 
the pen and paper you use, the table, the chair on \.;I;\jrh you sit, 



Stages of Development 9 

even the clothes 3'ou wear, are the products of machinery that 
required centuries to develop ; and the alphabet you employ 
is the inheritance of thousands of years. Were it possible to 
blot out the past, man would be reduced to a state of savagery, 
without machiner}' or clothing, without language or tradition. 

It is through history that we learn what we owe to the genera- 
tions that have gone before, and can stud}' the origin and growth 
of the institutions we enjo}'. A knowledge of the past enables 
us the better to understand the duties of the present. 

8. Sources of History. — Though the prehistoric races left 
no consciously-prepared history, modern scholarship has done 
much toward revealing the secrets of those early times. Weapons 
and tools have been unearthed in great numbers, and each one 
brings its mute message from the long past years. ^ Suppose an 
excavator of an ancient cit}' finds a skeleton with a filled tooth in 
the jaw. He learns from this that a certain metal was in use at 
the time the person lived, and that some progress had been made 
in the practice of dentistry. Important facts can be learned from 
the earliest examples of sculpture and drawing. Inscriptions on 
monuments have been deciphered, and great numbers of tablets, 
unearthed from the ruins of buried cities, have been read by 
scholars who devote their lives to such studies. Songs, legends, 
and traditions are also of some value to the student of history. 
The evidences are put together piece by piece until a fairlj' ac- 
curate knowledge is gained of the habits, doings, and mode of 
life of the ancient peoples. 

The American Indians wrote no books, but we learn something 
of how they lived and what they did before the coming of the white 
man by studying the mounds they built and the flint arrowheads 
and stone axes or tomahawks which they made, also from the 
rude carvings of their artists. 

' More than a thousand swords, lances, and daggers were found in Schlcswig in 
a single pit. Near Ha^^statt, Austria, 980 tomi)s were opened, revealing great 
numbers of bronze and iron implements; but as there were no Roman coins, it is 
inferred tha* '"., tombs were made before the invasion of that country by the 
Romans. See Seignobos, IJislory of Ancient Civilization, pp. 8, 9. 
EL. M. T.' — 2 



lO 



Prehistoric Man 




Prehistoric Art 

The horse's head sculptured on a piece of 
reindeer born, was found buried with relics 
of the rough stone age, in southern France. 
The charging mammoth was engraved on 
an ivory tusk, also in southern France dur- 
ing the rough stone age ; it is one of the 
most remarkable relics of its kind. The 
stag hunt shown at the left is from a 
painting on the walls of a cavern in Spain, 
made in the polished stone age. 



However much we may learn from prehistoric implements and 
art, written records constitute the chief source of history. These 
may be consciously-written historic accounts, as those of Herod'- 
otus, Jose'phus, or Tacitus (tas'i-tus) ; or they may be sacred 
books which give history incidentally, as the Aves'ta of the Per- 
sians, or the Old Testament of the Jews ; or they may be records 
of kings as found on tablets and monuments. 

By far the greater part of our knowledge of the historic period 
is drawn from the written records ; hence most of the matter in 
this book will be taken from these sources. 

9. Invention of Writing. — Man never took a greater step in 
the direction of civilization and culture than when he invented 
the means of writing. In the childhood of the race the form of 
writing invented is what we call picture writing, in which the 
drawings represent things or ideas. Among the Indian tribes 
we find many specimens of picture writing. 



Stages of Dc. clopniciit . ii 

A great advance was made when word writing was invented. 
By this method each word is represented b}' a character. But 
such writing is very difficult, as one is obliged to learn several 
thousand characters. The Chinese never advanced beyond this 
stage, and to this day the civilization of the Chinese is greatly 
retarded by their antiquated form of writing. 

Word writing was followed by syllable writing, in which each 
sj^mbol represents a syllable. This method reduced the number of 
characters to a few hundred and greatly simplified the art of writing. 

Finally, the phonetic or sound method of writing came into 
use. In this each character represents one or more sounds, and 
the characters collectively are known as the alphabet. 

10. Ancient, Medieval, and Modern History. — Historic 
times are often divided into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, 
and Modern. The ancient period merges into the medieval, and 
the medieval into the modern, by slow and imperceptible stages ; 
it is therefore not surprising that writers vary in choosing definite 
dates as dividing points. 

The ancient period comprises all historic times before the birth 
of Christ (about 5000 years) and about five or eight centuries after 
Christ. 

The medieval period, called also the Middle Ages, comprises the 
following nine or ten centuries. Modem history covers the period 
from the end of the Middle Ages to the present time.' 

It will be observed that the modern period is much shorter 
than either of the others, and that the medieval period is less 
than one fifth as long as the ancient period. 

' Most of the older historians took the date 476 a.d., the fall of the Western Ro- 
man P2mpire, as ending the ancient period and beginning the Middle .Ages, but 
other dates are often given; recent writers usually extend the ancient period to the 
time of Charlemagne, 800 a.d. The point dividing medieval from modern times is 
variously given as 1453, the fall of Constantinople ; 1402, the discovery of .\merica ; 
1517, the beginning of the Protestant Reformation ; 1648, the treaty of Westphalia ; 
or even 1780, the beginning of the French Revolution. It is of slight imiwrtance 
which of these one adopts. Perhaps in the remote future our own times will be 
considered medieval or even ancient. 



12 ' Prehistoric Man 



II. Races and Languages 



II. Races of Men. — The beginning of history finds the in- 
habitants of the earth divided into many types or races, dis- 
tinguished from one another by language, color, physical features, 
and the like. These types of people are usually grouped into four 




The Four Races of Man 

Beginning at the right, the men in the picture are arranged in the same order 

as the races mentioned in the text, namely, Caucasian, Negro, Mongolian, and 

American Indian. 

great races, of which all minor divisions are but variations. 
They are (i) the Caucasian or white race, (2) the Ethio'pian, 
Negro, or black race, (3) the Mongolian or yellow race, and 
(4) the American or red race. 

The Caucasian race ^ comprises most of the peoples of Europe 
and their descendants in America and elsewhere, also the peoples 
of northern Africa and of western Asia. In ancient times the 
peoples of India, Babylonia, Arabia, Palestine, Egypt, and of 
Greece, Italy, and the rest of Europe, belonged to this race. 
Their modern descendants comprise the great nations of Italy, 
France, Russia, Germany, and England, the white people of the 

1 From Cau'casus, a region between the Caspian and Black seas in which the 
white race was formerly supposed to have had its origin. 



Races and Languages 13 

United States, and many smaller nations. Not only are almost 
all the civilized nations of to-day of the white race, but through- 
out all the historic ages this race has taken the lead and has been 
foremost in the world's progress. 

The Ethiopian ^ or Negro race inhabits central i\frica and other 
warm lands, where many have adopted the civilization of white 
men. 

The IMongolian ^ or yellow race includes the Chinese, Japanese, 
and other peoples of northern and eastern Asia and adjacent 
islands. A small part of this race is sometimes called the Malay 
or brown race. We find also a few yellow peoples in Europe, as 
the Turks and Hungarians. The yellow race boasts of a very 
ancient civilization ; but after it reached a stage that we should 
pronounce half-civilized, two thousand or more j'ears ago, its 
growth was checked and thereafter it made little progress until 
very recent times. 

The American race, or Indians, were unknown to the rest of 
the world until 1492. When discovered by the Europeans, the 
great majority of the Indian tribes lived in the polished stone age 
and in the hunting and fishing stage. 

12. Languages. — If a number of children were to associate 
with one another, none having been taught to speak, thej^ would 
soon make a language of their own (sec. 6, note). If a number of 
people, each knowing a language unknown to the others, were 
thrown together, they would no doubt soon form a common 
speech composed of words taken from the languages the}' already 
knew. If then in later ages it were desired to discover from what 
nations this group of people had come, a great deal could be 
learned by studying their language. 

In like manner we learn much of the origin and relationship of 
the nations with one another by studying their languages. Here 

* Ethiopia is the old name of a region south of Ef;>]it, the hunu- of the Xegroes 
first known to the civilized white men. 

^ From Mongolia, a large province of central ."Vsia, whence came main- invasions 
and migrations of yellow peoples. 



14 Prehistoric Man 

is an example : The ancient Greeks believed that they had sprung 
from the soil of Greece ; but the resemblance of their language 
to the old Sanskrit language of India and to other languages of 
western Asia and Europe, points strongly to the supposition that 
the Greeks and other peoples in prehistoric times migrated from 
some region where their ancestors had lived together. As there 
was no written record of this long journey, it was entirely forgot- 
ten by later generations. 

The people of the world speak many languages, only a few of 
which need be mentioned here. The white or Caucasian race is 
usually divided into three great branches or linguistic families, as 
follows : 

1. The Hamites (ham'its), which may be ranked as the smallest 
and least important of these great families. The only great 
ancient Hamit'ic nation was Egypt. 

2. The Semites (sem'Its). The Babylonians, Arabians, He- 
brews, and Phoenicians (fe-nish'anz) were known as the Semit'ic 
peoples. Their languages greatly resemble one another and are 
called the Semit'ic languages. 

3. The Indo-Europeans (also caUed /\ryans). The Sanskrit of 
India is the oldest known Indo-European language. It is very 
much like the old language that was in a sense the parent of the 
Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin languages and other ancient Indo- 
European tongues, and through them of nearly all the modern 
languages of Europe. To the Indo-European group belong the 
Caucasian peoples of India and Persia, and nearly all the Caucasian 
peoples of modern Europe, America, Australia, etc. The Indo- 
European languages bear a close resemblance to one another ; 
many words are the same in several of them. 

13. Scope of This Book. — We are now ready to begin the 
story of the nations. Almost the entire book will be devoted 
to the doings of the Caucasian race. Again, at least nine tenths 
of the book must be given to an account of the Indo-European 
branch of that race, as the Indo-Europeans have dominated the 
world for the past 2500 years. 



A View of Preliistoric Europe 15 

The Greeks and the Romans (or Latins) are known as the 
Classic peoples. They gained the world's leadership six or seven 
hundred years before Christ and held it for a thousand years. 
Then they declined and gave way before another great branch of 
the Indo-European family, — the Teuton'ic.^ The Teutonic peoples 
became dominant about 1 500 years ago and have ever since held 
the largest place in history, — although the Latin, Slavic, Japanese, 
and other nations also have made great contributions to the world's 
progress. Most of the latter half of this book therefore must be 
devoted to the peoples of the Teutonic race, including the English, 
Dutch, Germans, Scandinavians, and other peoples, and part of 
the French and Italians. 

III. A View of Prehistoric Europe 

14. Europe of Long Ago. — When Europe first became the 
home of men we do not know. We know that when history 
began to dawn upon that continent, it was aswarm with primitive 
peoples from the dark pine forests of Scandinavia to the shores 
of the Mediterranean ; and geologists tell us that thej^ had already 
occupied the land for unnumbered thousands of years. Human 
skeletons have been discovered so far beneath the earth's surface 
as to indicate a very remote age, an age when vast glaciers or 
masses of ice moved down from the north over a large part of 
Europe, carrying with them immense quantities of rock and soil 
which the)' left behind when they melted awa}'. 

Let us take a glance at prehistoric Europe, not the Europe of 
the glacial period but of a time some thousands of )'ears later 
when the surface had become similar to what it is now and man 
had made some progress toward civilization. We find the people 
living in huts made by bending saplings together at the top and 
inclosing the spaces between them with bark and leaves. Or 

1 The Teutonic or Nordic race comprised the peoples of Scandinavia, Germany, 
and other parts of northern Europe. They were characterized by tall stature, 
long head, blue eyes, and light hair and complexion. The purest Teutonic type of 
to-day is the Scandinavian. 



1 6 Prehistoric Man 

they may hve in tents made of skins of animals and supported 
by poles. They have already learned the use of fire and they 
know how to make crude implements — hatchets, knives, hammers, 
and arrowheads — of stone. They have trained the wild jackal, 
which has become the faithful dog. 

The Europeans of this period have no knowledge of the far 
more remote times (ancient times to them) when their ancestors 
lived in caves ; when the mammoth (picture in sec. 8) — a species 
of elephant covered with shaggy brown hair and armed with tusks 
ten feet long — stalked with ponderous tread through the forest, 
feeding upon the branches of the trees. These great pachyderms 
had become extinct. The thick-skinned rhinoceros that inhabited 
the jungles and the huge hippopotamus that wallowed in the 
rivers, both natives of Europe, had been driven to the tropical 
south by the glaciers. 

But we see that many wild creatures still share the forest home 
with the prehistoric Europeans. Great herds of wild horses 
roam over the hills and plains, and the wolves howl at night 
around the lonely huts in the wilderness. 

We see a man at his tent door skinning a deer that he has shot 
with his bow and arrow. He uses a knife, or a fist hatchet, made 
of hard stone. His wife sits on the ground near the tent weaving 
a basket of grass fiber. Both are clothed in skins sewed together 
with thongs of animal tendons by use of a bone needle. The 
children, perhaps not clothed at all, are playing about, or search- 
ing the forest for nuts or berries, or trying to capture small animals 
for food. The life of the family is one long struggle for food and 
for protection from the wild beasts. 

15. The Lake Dwellers. — In some parts of the country, 
especially in what is now Switzerland, the people found an ef- 
fective protection by building huts over the water. These people 
are known as the " lake dwellers." The hut was built on a plat- 
form supported by piles driven into the soft bottom of the lake. 
The piles were made of logs, the trunks of small trees, cut down 
with stone or bronze axes. Villages of these huts were built over 



A View of Prehistoric Europe 



17 



many lakes and were connected with the shore by movable 
bridges. No doubt these lake huts furnished excellent protection 
to the inhabitants from their enemies, man and beast, and more- 
over fishing at home was made an easy and comfortable occupa- 
tion. Fish were taken by means of nets, or with bone fish-hooks 
let down through a hole in the floor. Many tools and implements 




A Small Village of Lake Dwellers — Restor.\tiox 

The causeway in the foreground, broken by movable bridges, connected the village 
with the land. This restoration represents a home of the later lake dwellers. 



were dropped into the lake, often by accident, and thousands 
of them have been discovered in our own times. From these 
it is found that the earl}- lake dwellers belonged to the polished 
stone age and to the hunting and fishing stage. The later lake 
dwellers had merged into the bronze age. 

16. Europe at a Later Age. — Let us pow take a nearer view 
of Europe, a few centuries before the beginning of the Christian 



i8 Prehistoric Man 

era. We find that along the southern shores, in Greece and 
Italy, notable advances in civilization have been made, as de- 
scribed in later chapters of this book. Over all the rest of Europe 
barbarism still prevails. But the Europeans have made great 
progress since we saw them dwelling on the lakes or skinning deer 
at their tent doors. 

Since then they have been passing from the bronze to the iron 
age and from the hunting to the pastoral stage, and they have 
made a beginning in agriculture. They have tamed other animals 
besides the dog. The wild horse has become man's faithful serv- 
ant. Herds and flocks of cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats dot the 
stretches of common pasture lands. To the food of the earlier 
times (meat, fish, nuts, and berries) are added milk, butter, and 
such cereals as wheat, barley, and rye. These barbarian Euro- 
peans have learned to make pottery of various kinds, and some 
of their tools are made of iron ; but iron is not yet plentiful. 

Long ago their ancestors had learned, perhaps by mere accident, 
that certain kinds of clay are hardened by burning, and thus the 
way was opened for making all sorts of vessels for use and orna- 
ment. One of the most important steps in the advance of any 
primitive people comes with the making of pottery. 

When the' Europeans learned to smelt iron we know not, but 
at the period we are studying they made many utensils and weapons 
of iron. They had also learned to tan hides and to weave cloth 
from various fibers. No longer were they dependent wholly on 
animal skins for clothing. The women especially dressed for 
the most part with cloth, which they dyed red or purple. The 
tribal form of government prevailed and the tribes often fought 
with one another. 

But with all this advance over the preceding centuries, the 
Europeans were still barbarians. They had no schools, no books, 
no writing of any kind. They worshiped objects in nature and 
imaginary spirits, and believed in a future life, but they had no 
churches and in many parts no regular priests or religious teachers. 

Now and then the Europeans of this period, especially those 



A View of Prehistoric Europe 



19 



near the coast, met traders from eastern lands. With them they 
exchanged furs and other products of the forest for glass beads, 
ornamental potter}^ and for utensils and weapons better than they 
were able to make at home. Who these traders were and from 
what strange lands they had come the Europeans did not know ; 
but we can imagine that the}^ were filled with wonder at their 
strange visitors. The fact is, the East, or Orient, was thousands 
of 5"ears in advance of Europe in civilization, and as the peoples 
of the Orient furnish the background of the civilization of Europe 
we must give them our attention in the next two chapters. 




Stonehenge — Restoration 



Side Talk 

Stonehenge. — One of the most interesting prehistoric relics in the world 
is found in a broad plain near Salisbury (s61z'ber-I), in southern England, 
and is called Stonchcni^e (ston'henj), which means hanging stones. It orig- 
inally consisted of a large circle of huge upright stone posts about twelve 
feet high, inclosing a row of ten still larger posts, arranged in the form of a 
horseshoe opening to the east ; together with many smaller stones. The 
outer stone posts were capped with large horizontal stones about ten feet 



20 



Prehistoric Man 




Stonehenge — Part of the Outer Circle 

The complete outer circle is about loo feet across, and contained originally thirty 

upright stones, of which half were still in place in 1920. In that year the stones 

that had fallen were reerected ; but some .had been taken away in past ages for 

use in other structures. 



long, firmly mortised into place ; the posts in the horseshoe were liiiewise 
capped, in pairs. One of the upright stones of the horseshoe is twenty-two 
feet high and others are sixteen feet high. In the midst of the inclosure 
lies a great stone of blue marble fifteen feet in length, called the Altar Stone. 

Stonehenge is a remarkable monument of a long past age. Many have 
been the speculations as to its construction and the purpose and the time 
in which it was built. It is very probable that it was a temple of worship. 
Some have attributed it to the Druids, others to the Danes, and still others 
to the Romans when they occupied Britain. The latest researches, how- 
ever, indicate that Stonehenge was erected by an ancient British people 
about 2000 B.C. Over three hundred burial mounds have been found within 
three miles of the place and many contained bronze implements. It is 
therefore believed that Stonehenge dates from the bronze age. 

Salisbury plain, during the World War, was the site of one of the great 
British training camps, where many American boys, as well as British and 
colonial troops, were stationed for a time. 

Questions and Topics. — I. Define historic and prehistoric times. 
Name some peoples who have not reached the historic period. In what 
way is man superior to the animals? What is meant by the polished stone 



Stonehenge 21 

age and why is it so called? the iron aj^e? Why was man a hunter before 
he was a shepherd? and win- a shepherd before he was a farmer? ' How do 
you account for the two great changes that came during the agricultural 
stage? 

What is human government? Wh}^ is it necessarj-? Describe the im- 
aginary condition of a people without language ; without fire. 

What is history? Name the records by which we learn something about 
prehistoric man. Describe picture writing. Why did it precede word 
writing? What is phonetic writing? How are ancient, medieval, and 
modern times usually divided? 

n. On what basis do we divide the peoples of the world into races? 
What races are most progressive? Into what three great branches is the 
white race divided ? Why is it so divided ? What peoples have held the 
world's leadership during the past 2500 years? 

in. What can you tell of the glaciers of prehistoric Europe? Describe 
the lake dwellers. W^hat is meant by the bronze age? What foods were 
added to man's diet when he became a shepherd? a farmer? Why is the 
making of pottery an important step in human progress? Write a brief 
description of what our American civilization would be without the use 
of iron. 

For Further Reading. — Note. The lists of books of reference given at 
the ends of the chapters are by no means complete. Those only are given 
which are most likely to be found in a good school library, or that are not 
difficult to procure. Usually the title of the book and the name of its author 
only will be given ; the reader will find the topic required by means of the 
index or table of contents. Few books will be mentioned that are not 
printed in English, or are too advanced for young readers. • 

For the story of prehistoric man the following books are recommended : 
Clodd, Slory of Primitive Man, also Childhood of the World by the same 
author. Taylor, Origin of the Aryans. Brinton, Races and Peoples. Elliot, 
The Romance of Early British Life; this book treats prehistoric Britain 
only, but is equally true of early times in other countries. It is written 
almost in story form and furnishes delightful reading. 



THE ORIENTAL PEOPLES 

CHAPTER II 

ANCIENT EGYPT 

I. The Land and the People 

17. A Wonderful River. — There is no more famous and 
wonderful river of the world than the Nile. On this river have 
depended the life and subsistence of millions of people for thou- 
sands of years. The Greek historian Herodotus declared that 
Egj^pt was the gift of the Nile, and it is literally true. 

Rising far to the southward in the heart of Africa, this great 
river waters and enriches a narrow valley, brings life and comfort 
to the people that dwell along its banks, and makes a garden of 
what would otherwise be a sterile and barren land. The lower 
Nile Valle5^ excepting the delta, is but eight or ten miles wide and 
is hemmed in on either side b}' lines of barren hills. Ancient 
Egypt comprised the delta and this narrow valley extending up 
(southward) to the " First Cataract," a distance of 600 miles. 
Swollen by the rains and the melting snows of the Abyssinian 
mountains, the Nile overflows the entire valley every summer, 
reaching its height in September. A few months later the waters 
have returned to the channel, leaving a sediment of alluvial 
soil which makes the valley one of the most fertile spots in the 
world. A song of the Egyptians to the Nile ran as follows : 

" Greeting to thee, O Nile, who hast revealed thyself through- 
out the land, who comest in peace to give life to Egypt. Does it 
rise? The land is filled with joy, every heart exults, every being 
receives its food, every mouth is full. ... It creates all good 
things, it makes the grass to spring up for the beasts." 

-^3 



24 The Oriental Peoples 

i8. Egyptian Homes of Long Ago. — Nearly 5000 years before 
Christ the dawn of history began to break on the land of the Nile. 
The Egyptians were a Hamitic people. How many centuries 
they occupied the land before the record of their history begins, 
we do not know. Let us take a view of Egyptian life in the 
early historic period. - 

We see villages of mud huts built on low hills that rise like 
little islands above the flooded valley. These little hills are not 
natural, nor were they designedly made by the people. They 
came about in the following way : 

Egypt is known as a rainless land ; but now and then, perhaps 
two or three times in a century, the heavens open and the rain 
pours in torrential volume for many hours. The earthen huts 
are washed down and nothing is left but mounds of mud. The 
people are not in the least dismayed by the catastrophe. The 
whole population, men, women, and children, set to work to re- 
build their houses. They make new huts of mud or of mud 
bricks brought from some field near at hand. In a few weeks 
they are quite as well housed as before the flood ; but they do 
not excavate and lay a foundation as we do in building a house. 
They build on the remains of the old house, and the new one 
stands on a higher level. Thus the new village is slightly raised 
above the level of the old one, and in the course of centuries a hill 
is formed. 

The furniture of the poor Egyptians of long ago is very scanty. 
A peep within reveals a few low stools, a wooden chest for linen, 
a few flat stones for grinding grain, and a rush mat or two lying 
on the ground floor. These mats are the beds ; they have up- 
turned edges provided with prickles to keep the scorpions from 
the sleepers at night. Against the wall stands a small image of a 
god, which the family worships and which is supposed to drive 
away evil spirits. In a corner is an earthen bin containing 
grain, oil, and other provisions. The fireplace is against the 
back wall and above it the smoke escapes through a hole in the 
roof. 







I lEt'.vptinii Kmpi 
' aluiut 1150 n.C 



LoDgltudo 31) 



The Egyptians 



25 




19. Life of the People. — Let us watch the ancient Egyptian 
peasant at liis work. In early morning, at sunrise, barefooted 
and barelieaded, he leaves his mud hut and hurries to his field 
of toil. His only clothing is a pair of cotton trousers which 
scarcel}' fall below the thigh. He takes with him his midday 
meal — two small cakes baked in the ashes, perhaps a little oil 
in which to dip them, a morsel of dried fish, and one or two onions. 
His wife spends the day grinding grain between two stones, or in 
spinning and weaving by hand, and baking bread, with perhaps 
an hour or two in the market (v 

place. ^^ ^^^^h: 

The man who thus goes 
forth to toil is not free to 
choose his own hours or 
to work in his own way. 
Whether he works in the Ancient Egyptian Plowing 

field as a tiller of the soil, The plow is of wood, drawn by two cows, 
or in the brickyard, or in Notice how the two are shown, - a conven- 

tion of Egyptian art. 

the artisan's shop making 

pottery or ornaments, or whether he herds cattle on the plains, 
he toils under the lash of a taskmaster. He is sometimes beaten 
whether he deserves to be or not. An Egyptian proverb runs, 
" Man has a back and obeys only when it is beaten." Even 
the magistrate who orders the beating does not escape a similar 
punishment by his superiors. A great part of the earnings of 
the laborer must go for taxes. A large part of the flax and grain 
the peasant farmer raises is seized by the government agents, 
and one who fails to pay is treated with the utmost cruelty. But 
with all their hardships the Egyptians were a ga)' and light- 
hearted people. The common people had an opportunity to 
give the rudiments of an education to their children, and it was 
possible for the son of a peasant to advance to the upper classes 
through education and ability. 

The greatest hardship that the Egyptian pea.sant had to bear 
was found in the forced service of the young men in the army. 

EL. M. T. 3 



26 The Oriental Peoples 

As a people the Egyptians were patient and long-suffering ; they 
often preferred to bow their necks to the yoke of a foreign master 
rather than fight for their liberty. But their kings did not view 
the matter in that light. If we watch a village when the king's 




Egyptian Soldiers 




Egyptian War Chariot 

These ancient Egyptian pictures show clearly the weapons used. On the right 

side of the chariot are a bow case and a quiver. Notice that there are two horses, 

one on each side of the chariot pole; compare with the picture on page 25. 

recruiting agents are coming, we see that many of the men flee 
to the hills and remain away till the danger is past. The mayor 
of the village prevents this flight so far as he is able, for he knows 
that he will suffer by the bastinado if found negligent. The 
men seized for the army are seldom restored to their families ; 



The Egyptians 27 

many lives are sacrificed on the plains oi Syria or Ethiopia. When 
they are led away their wives and mothers weep and wail and 
mourn them as dead. The soldier goes into battle with a wooden 
shield held in his left hand, while in his right hand he wields an 
ax or a javelin jav'lin; that is, a light spear to be thrown). 
After the middle period of Egyptian history, when the horse and 
chariot were introduced, these were often used in battle. The 
chariot, made of wood and leather, bore but one or two warriors. 

20. Commerce and the Market Place. — The Nile was the 
great artery of Egyptian trade. Up and down the mighty river 
the people rowed or sailed their little boats, carrying their prod- 
ucts from one section to another.' In foreign trade they were 
less active, but their imports from abroad were considerable. 
Cedars of Leb'anon they obtained from the coast of Phoenicia 
(fe-nish'i-a) as early as 3000 B.C. ; ostrich feathers, ivory, ebony, 
and spices came from the heart of Africa by means of caravans 
of donkeys ; embroideries from Bab'ylon, silver and gold from 
Ethiopia, and many other things from various parts of the world, 
were imported in exchange for the products of Egypt. 

Let us take a stroll through an Egyptian market place of about 
1400 B.C.- It is in the city of Thebes (thebz). As we pass from 
the squalid suburbs to the central part of the city we find that 
the houses indicate wealth and comfort. The streets are so 
narrow that the sky seems but a blue line between the tops of 
the buildings. Here and there the houses project so far over the 
street from both sides that we walk through a sort of tunnel. 

Suddenh' we come to a small open square, a very nois)^ place. 
It is full of people who are talking loudly and who seem to be very 
busy. Crowds are going away, but other crowds are coming 
in, and the square is full all day long. 

* In the photograph reproduced on page 22 the boats indicate the importance 
of the Nile as a waterway in modern times. The sails are rigged in much the 
same way as those of the ancient Egj-ptian boats three or four thou.'^and years ago. 

' This is adapted from Life in A nciciit Ef;ypl and Assyria, ch. 11, by Maspcro, one 
of the most learned of the French Egyptologists, who spent many years in EgjTJt 
studying the inscriptions. 



28 



The Oriental Peoples 



All sorts of commodities are on sale. In the center of the square 
are groups of goats, sheep, oxen, geese. In front of the rows of 
houses that inclose the square, we see hundreds of fishermen 
and peasants squatting on the ground, each displaying, in a 
wicker basket or on a low table, something to sell. The customers 
walk along leisurely. Each carries something to barter for some- 
thing else, and very little money changes hands. A seller asks 




Egyptian Market Scenes 

From an Egyptian tomb. Selling and cleaning fish; bartering a necklace for pots 
of perfume. In the upper and central parts of each scene are examples of Egyp- 
tian writing in hieroglyphics. 

much more for an article than he expects to get. You hear an 
altercation that sounds like an angry quarrel. It is merely two 
persons trying to make a bargain, and the same thing is going 
on all over the square. A woman with fish and onions in her 
basket trades with a man for copper rings or a pair of sandals 
or a necklace of glass beads. One is trading for beautiful gold 
or stone vases. The bargains are often complicated. One in- 
scription shows that a man traded an ox for a mat, five measures 
of honey, eleven measures of oil, and seven other articles. 



II. Government and Religion 

21. Egyptian History ; the Rosetta Stone. — Our chief sources 
of Eg3''ptian history are the work of Herodotus, who visited the 
country about 460 B.C. and wrote an account of what he saw and 
heard ; also, manuscripts discovered in the past century, and 
many inscriptions on tombs and monuments. 



The Egyptians 29 

The greatest event in the modern stud}' of ancient Egypt was 
the deciphering of the Rosetta (ro-zet'a) stone. This large stone 
was found at Rosetta in the Nile dcha in 1799; it is now in the 
British Museum. On it a decree was written in three kinds of 
characters, one of which was Greek, while the others were late 
Egj'ptian and early Eg3"ptian, which no living person could read. 
On the supposition that the Greek and Egyptian inscriptions 
meant the same thing, the French scholar Champollion (shiiN- 
pol-yoN'),^ who easily read the Greek, set to work to decipher the 
Egj^ptian. After long and patient study he learned how to read 
the early Egyptian writing in hieroglyphics (hl-er-o-glif'iks ; sec. 
26), and since then great numbers of the ancient Egyptian in- 
scriptions and manuscripts have been read. 

Our knowledge of Egyptian history is subject to change with 
later discoveries. It is known, however, that for a very long 
period Eg3'pt was a kingdom and later on an empire. A kingdom 
is a monarchy, the people of which usually comprise but one 
nationality; an empire is usualh' a monarch}' having subject 
peoples of different nationalities. In Egypt the ruler was called 
Pharaoh (fa'ro), which means king or emperor. 

One of the great pharaohs of the earl}^ period was Khufu, 
called Cheops (ke'ops) by the Greeks. He was the builder of the 
largest pyramid (sec. 24). Centuries later a strange people called 
the Hyk'sos came from Asia and conquered the Egj^ptians. It 
is supposed by some that it was b}^ one of their kings that Joseph 
was made prime minister and that Jacob and his family were 
invited to make their home in Egypt. The Hyksos kings in- 
troduced the use of the horse and the war chariot. After a 
century or more of rule the Hyksos were expelled. 

In the period 1500 to 1300 B.C. the pharaohs extended their 
power over Ethiopia, Syria, and even as far as the valley of the 
Euphrates River. Thus Egypt expanded from a kingdom into a 
great empire. After a long war with the powerful Hittites 
(hit'its) of Asia Minor, the pharaoh Ramses (ram'sez) II made 

' For key to diacrilLal marks, sec first papo of index. 



30 



The Oriental Peoples 




a treaty with them, which has been discovered. It is the oldest 
known treaty in the world. 

From about the thirteenth century B.C. Egyptian civiUzation 
slowly declined. Again and again the land was conquered and 
the people had to bow to Assyrian, Persian, 
and Greek kings ; and later to Roman and 
Moslem rulers. From about 340 b.c. to the 
present day the people of the valley of the 
Nile have never known an hour of complete 
independence and self-government. At the . 
present time Egypt is under the control of 
the British government. 

22. Pharaoh and the Government. — The 
pharaoh or king of ancient Egypt stood 
alone as the head of the government and of 
society. He was absolute monarch, and the 
people regarded him as akin to the gods. 
Pharaoh — Ramses II Only on state occasions did he appear in the 
presence of his people. Over all classes he 
had the power of life and death, and all the 
wealth of the nation belonged to him. The 
provinces into which the country was divided 
were governed by agents who were responsible to the king. 

Next to the pharaoh stood the two privileged classes, the 
priesthood and the military class. Below these were the great 
masses of the people — herdsmen, artisans, and farmers. All the 
land of Egypt was the property of the pharaoh and by him it was 
parceled out to great landlords who employed taskmasters to 
force the peasants to toil and pay heavy taxes. The crafty 
priests made the peasants believe that large tracts of the land 
belonged to the gods and in this way secured a more willing service 
by making the daily toil a service of religion. 

23. Religion. — " The Egyptians are the most religious of all 
people," said Herodotus. The civilization of Egypt was built al- 
most wholly on religion. The art and architecture of the whole 



Black granite head now 
at Turin. The shepherd's 
crook and the asp or 
cobra on the headdress 
are emblems of authority. 



The Egyptians 



31 




Two Pictures of Ra 



country were little else than varied forms of religious expression. 
The different districts worshiped their own local gods, but there 
were also many gods worshiped throughout the country. 

The chief deity of the Egyptians was the sun-god Ra. It is 
easy to understand why a primitive people would worship the 
sun, as it is not only the most glori- 
ous object ever beheld by human 
e3'es, but is also the giver of heat 
and light and life itself. A Theban 
h5''mn to the rising sun ran thus : 
" Homage to thee, thou master of 
the two horizons. . . . Thou tread- 
est the heavens on high. Thine 
enemies are laid low. The heavens 
are glad, the earth is jo}'ful." 

The Egyptians fancied spirits, 
good and evil, dwelling in rocks 
and trees, men and animals. The ^^^^ -^^ surmounted by the disk of 

ibis, the cat, the hawk, the croCO- the sun, encircled with the asp, sym- 
,., 1.1 -1 1,1 bolizing the power of life and death. 

due, and other animals were held 

sacred in various places. The black bull Apis (a'pis) was vener- 
ated as the incarnation of Ptah, the local god of Memphis, and 
after its death was embalmed and kept in a vault, while a new- 
born calf was chosen to be the new Apis. 

No ancient people believed more firmly in a future life than 
did the Egyptians. In their belief that the soul might wish to 
reenter the body, they embalmed the bodies of the dead to preserve 
them from decay. Great numbers of these embalmed bodies, 
called mummies, are still in existence and ma}^ be seen in various 
museums. An Egyptian would live almost in poverty, den3'ing 
himself the necessaries of life, in order to build an enduring stone 
sepulcher for a tomb. In the tomb, with the coffin, were placed 
furniture, food, and manv other things for the use of the soul or 
" double " ; also the Book of the Dead, written on a roll of paper 
to explain what the soul should .say when it came into the presence 



32 



The Oriental Peoples 



of Osi'ris, the god of the underworld. To be admitted to the 
abode of happiness the soul had to declare that it had never de- 
frauded nor committed murder, had never blasphemed the gods 
nor profaned their temples, had never been an idler nor oppressed 
the widow. Thus in spite of its primitive forms of worship, the 
Egyptian religion enjoined a high moral standard. 




A Soul Brought to Osiris for Judgment 

From a painting in a Book of the Dead. The god Osiris holds the crook and 
the whip, emblems of authority. Behind him stand two goddesses, wife and sister 

of Osiris. 



III. Civilization and Progress 

24. Architecture and Art. — Every important building in 
early Egypt was a temple or a tomb.^ A temple was considered 
the dwelling place of a god. It was usually surrounded by a 

1 While the temples were supposed to be dwelling places of the gods, the great 
structures such as that at Kar'nak, served also as residences of the priests. Here, 
in addition to the ordinary forms of worship, were held ceremonials in which the 
king sacrificed to the gods for the people, or was himself worshiped by the people 
as representative of the gods on earth. The sculptured columns shown in the pic- 
ture on the opposite page were covered with hieroglyphics and paintings in brilliant 
color. 




Aisi.K OF Till'. (iui.AT Ham, nr Kaknvk 



The Egyptians 33 

court and beautiful gardens. The entrance was a magnificent 
gateway, on either side of which stood a colossal obelisk of solid 
roclv, or a great stone giant in a sitting posture. 

The pyramids are the most stupendous structures ever erected 
by human hands. They are tombs of the pharaohs, in a great 
ro5^al cemetery at Gizeh (ge'ze), a few miles from the city of 
Memphis. In other tombs of masonry, clustered about the 
pyramids, were buried many relatives of the pharaohs. 

The great pyramids are built of huge blocks of limestone. 
The largest was originally 480 feet in height. It covers 13 acres 
and is composed of 2,300,000 blocks of stone averaging in weight 
about two and a half tons each. Its construction required the 
labor of 100,000 men for twenty years. It was built by Cheops 
(Khufu) nearly five thousand years ago. 

In earlier times the Egyptians had usually built their tombs 
and monuments of sun-dried bricks ; but by the time of the age of 
the pyramids they had learned to make implements of copper with 
which they could cut stone. From this time forth their buildings 
and monuments were of an enduring nature, and many of them 
remain to this day.i 

In the early period the capital of Egypt was Memphis, but 
during the empire most of the pharaohs lived at Thebes. In 
time, therefore, Thebes grew into one of the most wonderful of 
ancient cities. Here were erected vast structures — towering 
obelisks, colossal statues, great palaces, and above all the Temple 
of Ammon, one of the most magnificent temples of the ancient 
world. This great structure, called also the Hall of Karnak, 
from the suburb of Thebes in which it was located, contains the 
grandest colonnaded hall in the world. There is a central aisle 
of twelve columns eighty feet high, with lines of smaller columns 

' The Sphinx is the stone figure of a recumbent licm with llu- head of a king wear- 
ing a royal head cloth. When it was excavated in the nineteenth century, between 
the outstretched paws rose a kind of open temple, w^hich is now re-covered with 
sand. Probably the original rock bore a natural resemblance to a lion, but this re- 
semblance was improved with the help of blocks of stone, and the face was carved 
by the Egyptians. 



34 The Oriental Peoples 

on either side. The general plan of this and other temples of 
Egypt was copied in part by the Greeks and Romans and later 
by the builders of the Christian cathedrals. 

In sculpture the Egyptians 'never greatly excelled. The oldest 
specimens of the sculptor's art that have been preserved are 
truer to life and nature than those of later times. Sculpture 
came to follow conventional rules, fixed by religion. The figures 
of the men were all made alike, stiff and unattractive, with feet 
together and legs parallel. The chief function of sculpture was 
to decorate the walls of tombs and temples with carved figures. 

The Egyptians became very skillful in various handicrafts. 
They cut fine bowls from hard stone, and molded beautiful jars and 
vases from clay and glass ; they made jewelry of gold and silver 
and precious stones. They invented many useful implements. 

25. The Sciences. — One scientific achievement of the ancient 
Egyptians is shown by their skill in preserving dead bodies. The 
yearly inundations of the Nile led them to construct reservoirs 
and canals by which they irrigated the land during the dry season . 
The Nile inundations often destroyed their landmarks ; and 
thus they were forced to a study of surveying, in which they be- 
came very proficient. 

The Egyptians studied the heavens and attained a knowledge 
of astronomy, and one of their greatest achievements was their 
fixing the length of the year at 365 days. The Egyptian calendar 
was devised in 4241 B.C. By it the year was divided into twelve 
months of thirty days each, leaving five holidays at the end of the 
year. It was this calendar with slight changes that Julius Caesar 
adopted for the Roman people many centuries later. Caesar 
added the five holidays to various months, thus making them 
uneven in length, and provided that one year in four should have 
366 days. Many centuries later Pope Gregory XIII again cor- 
rected the calendar (1582 a.d.), and in the form in which he left 
it, it is in use now in nearly all civilized lands. 

26. How the Egyptians Learned to Write. — The people of 
Egypt, without a teacher, learned to write ; and the art of writing 



The Egyptians ,^5 

was the greatest gift they ever made to the world. The first 
rudiments of writing were perhaps nothing more than keeping 
accounts bj' making marks on the walls of the mud huts. The 
next step was to trace an outline figure of an object to e.xpress an 
idea. The idea of a house, for example, would be shown by an 
outline drawing of one of their little mud huts. The sun, the 
moon, a man, and many other objects were drawm to express 
ideas. This is known as picture writing. The American Indians 
had reached this stage of writing when Columbus made his famous 
voyage. They were about 6000 years behind the Egyptians. 

Egyptian Hieroglyphic Writing 

From the Rosetta stone. The writing is from right to left. The few words here 
shown mean " Raising a statue of the king of Egypt, Ptolemy eternal beloved of Ptah '' 

But picture writing is very unsatisfactory. Who can draw a 
picture of all his thoughts? Besides, there are many ideas that 
cannot well be expressed in pictures, such as goodness, shape, 
size, and the like. For such words the Eg3'ptians needed a 
better form of writing, and it came, in the course of hundreds 
of years, by the steps described in section 9. The Egyptians de- 
vised an alphabet of twenty-four letters, and could write any 
word in their language. The achievement was of vast importance 
to the future of the world. No nation unable to write can make 
any claim to culture and civilization. 

Though the Egyptians invented an alphabet they did not 
make full use of it. For many centuries the_y used it only 
in supplementing the older methods of writing. The ancient 
Egyptian system of writing, called hierogl,yphic, was thus a com- 
bination of characters representing objects, words, and syllables 
or alphabetic sounds. 

The Egyptians made many inscriptions on monuments, temples, 
and tombs. They used also a paper called papyrus (pa-pl'rus), 



36 The Oriental Peoples 

which they made from the pith of a reed that grew along the 
Nile. They cut this pith into thin strips, laid them side by side, 
and, placing another layer across, pasted them together and 
subjected them to a heavy pressure. Thus a fairly good paper 
was made. Our word paper comes from the word papyrus. 

The Egyptians made ink by mixing soot and vegetable gum 
with water. With this they wrote on the papyrus by means of 
a pointed reed. A book was a roll of written papyrus, and a 
reader had to hold it with both hands, unrolling it with one hand 
at one end while rolling it up with the other hand at the other 
end as he read. A papyrus book was kept packed in a jar. A 
library consisted of a number of shelves of papyrus jars, each 
labeled to show the subject treated. 

27. Influence of Egypt on Later Civilization. — The people of 
the Nile Valley are especially interesting to us because they 
developed the first civilization in the world's history. The 
Babylonians, whose civilization is almost as old, will be treated 
in the next chapter. 

" You Greeks are but children," said an Egyptian to Herodotus, 
about four and a half centuries B.C. At that time it was but a 
few hundred years since Greece had emerged from barbarism, 
while Egyptian civilization had passed its zenith a thousand 
years. 

We of to-day are indebted to the ancient Egyptians for much 
that we enjoy. We owe them for the calendar, for the foundation 
of the sciences of astronomy and geometry, and for some of the 
best features of our modern architecture. Above all, we owe 
them for the invention of the alphabet, their greatest achieve- 
ment. 

Questions and Topics. — I. Write a short essay on the Nile River. 
How came the little hills on which the mud houses were built? From 
what you know of the home life of the Americans of 300 years ago, how 
would it compare with that of the Egyptians? How were taxes col- 
lected in Egypt? What advantage has a self-governing people in the 
matter of taxation? How did the Egyptians regard war? Under 



The Egyptians 37 

what circumstances is war justifiable? Describe an Egyptian market 
place. 

II. From what sources do wc get our knowledge of early Egypt? 
What is the Rosetta stone? Where is the British Museum? What 
is the dilTcrence between a kingdom and an empire? What empires 
exist at present? Who was Ramses II? Name some features of the 
ancient Egyptian religion. Why did the Egyptians preserve dead 
bodies? 

III. Describe the various steps of the Egyptians in making an 
alphabet. How does learning to write rank in the progress of a nation? 
What is papyrus? What simple invention enabled the Egyptians to 
build structures of enduring stone? Why are the pyramids interesting 
to us? What conditions forced the Egyptians to learn surveying? 
For what is the modern world indebted to ancient Egypt? 

For Further Reading. — Maspero, Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria; 
also by same author, Manual of Egyptian Archeology. Breasted, 
History of the Ancient Egyptians. Botsford, Source Book of Ancient 
History. Moray, Ancient Peoples. 



CHAPTER III 
THE TIGRIS-EUPHRATES VALLEY; PALESTINE 

I. The Inhabitants of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley 

28. The Land of the Twin Rivers. — Far up among the snowy 
heights of the Arme'nian mountains rise two of the most notable 
rivers in the world — the Ti'gris and the Euphra'tes. In their 
upper courses they flow near together, then far apart, and again 
together, inclosing the great plains of Mesopotamia (mes-o-po- 
ta'mi-a).^ The course of the Tigris is the more direct. The 
Euphrates makes a great detour toward the desert of Arabia ; 
but in their lower course the two rivers unite and flow as one into 
the Persian Gulf. 

The land along this lower course, together with the southern 
part of Mesopotamia, was known to the ancients 'as Chaldea 
(kal-de'a) or Babylonia. It was a land of burning sun, of extraor- 
dinary fertility of soil, and of extensive forests of palm trees. 
It was the seat of one of the earliest civilizations in history. 
Some scholars, indeed, believe that the historic period of this 
great valley can be traced fully as far back as the historic period 
of Egypt. 

As the valley of the Nile, because of its great fertility, devel- 
oped an early civilization, so it was with the great valley of the 
twin rivers. The vast fertile plain between the snowy mountains 
of Armenia and the uninhabitable deserts of Arabia became 
the prize for which contending peoples fought. Wandering 
tribes would roll in from the desert or the mountains, and if suc- 
cessful in subduing the inhabitants, would settle down and be- 
come tillers of the soil. These again would be driven out by other 
tribes, and so the process continued for thousands of years. 

1 From two Greek words meaning " between the rivers." 
38 



The Babylonians 



39 



^'^~^. 




x^^ 

^i^ 



Man^^ a nomadic tribe, with its meager possessions of flocks 
and herds and rude implements of war, passed in this way from 
the pastoral to the agricultural stage and merged into a state of 
civilization. The peoples of this great valley were similar in 
their civilization to their contemporaries of the valley of the 
Nile, and much that has been said 
of the Eg3'ptians need not be re- 
peated here. 

29. The Sumerians and the 
Babylonians. — The first known in- 
habitants of the lower Tigris- Eu- 
phrates \'alle3'' were the Sume'rians, 
a ■' round-headed, smooth-shaven " 
people of unknown origin. The}' 
built strong houses, tilled the soil, 
and threw up dikes to regulate the 
overflow of the Euphrates. They 
also, like the Egyptians, invented 
a sj'stem of writing. About 2750 
B.C. these people were conquered 
by a Semitic tribe of nomads. The 
two peoples soon became friendlj^ 
and lived together in harmony. 
Each city had an independent gov- 
ernment with its separate king. 
They are known as citj'-states. In 
the earh' time the country was 
called Akkad, but later the town of Babylon came to be the most 
important city and gave its name to the whole country — Baby- 
lonia. The towns and cities were built on low hills that grew up 
in the same way as those of the valley of the Nile (sec. 18). Some 
of these are being excavated and the records and tablets are being 
deciphered through the patient labors of scholars who devote their 
lives to this work. 

30. Hammurabi the Lawgiver. — About 2 1 00 u.c. the valley was 




VoTX\E Statue of a Babylo- 
nian King, about 2450 b.c. 

Found in southern Babylonia; now 
in tlie Louvre (loo'vr'), Paris. The 
statue is of diorite, a hard stone 
imported from a distance This 
illustrates the fact that Babylonia 
had an extensive commerce. 



40 



The Oriental Peoples 



conquered b}' Hammurabi (ham-oo-ra'be). He made Babylon 
his capital and extended his kingdom into a great empire reaching 
to the Mediterranean. He was one of the wisest and greatest 
rulers of the ancient world. He is remembered in history for the 
code of laws that he gave to his people. The laws were engraved 
on a stone shaft eight feet high, at the top 
of which was the figure of the king receiv- 
ing the laws from the sun-god. This, the 
most precious relic that has come down to 
us from ancient Babylon, was unearthed 
by a Frenchman in 190 1. 

We learn much about these people of 
long ago through this remarkable code. 
It reveals that the Babylonians recognized 
private ownership of land, that they had 
a regular postal system, and that woman 
held a free and dignified position. The 
code shows that commerce was very exten- 
sive and that merchants gave credit and 
issued drafts. When a father received a 
price for his daughter in marriage, he usu- 
ally handed it to her at the wedding and 
thus the young couple had both the bride- 
price and the bride's dowry with which to 
set up their home. There were cruel pro- 
visions in this code, but on the whole it 
was quite sane and even modern in spirit. 
The Code of Hammurabi was in force 
for fifteen centuries or more. It was adopted in part by the Per- 
sian conquerors of Babylon, and later by the Greeks and others. 
This famous code ends thus : 

" Let any oppressed man who has a cause come before my 
image as king of righteousness . . . may he set his heart at ease 
and he will exclaim, ' Hammurabi is indeed a ruler who is like a 
real father to his people.' " 




The Code of Ham- 
murabi 

The laws are inscribed on 
this stone shaft ; the fig- 
ures at the top show Ham- 
murabi receiving the laws 
from the sun-god. 




Facing 41 



The Assyrians 41 

31. The Rise of Assyria. — North and northwest from Baby- 
lonia is the br(~)ad valley of the upper Tigris River, and this, ex- 
tending on to the mountains of Armenia, comprises Assyria. It 
is a land broken by hills and mountain spurs and traversed by 
rapid streams. The soil is far less fertile than that of Babylonia, 
and in winter the storms blow fiercely over the hills. 

The people of Assj^ia were Semites, of the same race as the 
Babylonians, but were far more savage and warlike than their 
kinsmen of the lower valley. The)' made Nin'eveh their capital 
and it became the heart and center of all Assyrian life. The war- 
like Assyrians became world conquerors. They conquered Bab}-- 
lon and all the peoples of the Mesopotamian valley ; also SjTia, 
Palestine, and Egypt. One great Assyrian army on an expedition 
to Jerusalem was destroyed by a pestilence.^ The records of his- 
toiy tell of no more cruel and bloodthirsty people than the Assyri- 
ans. For hundreds of years they were the scourge of the nations. 
To prevent uprisings among a conquered people the Assyrians 
devised the plan of carrying them away from their homes and 
scattering them among foreign peoples. This explains the several 
captivities of the Jews, as related in the Old Testament. 

32. Fall of Nineveh (606 B.C.). — A day of reckoning came to 
the great wicked city of Nineveh. The Assyrians had exhausted 
themselves in war. Their enemies rose on every side. At last 
the Babylonians, joined by the Medes (medz), laid siege to the 
Assyrian capital, " the city gorged with prey," and after a desper- 
ate resistance it was overpowered and leveled to the ground. 
" Nineveh is laid waste ; who will bemoan her ? " said the Jewish 
prophet. So complete was the destruction of Nineveh that the 
very site of the city was lost and it remained unknown for more 
than two thousand years. 

' The 01(1 Testament account of this is found in TI Kings 19, 35-36. See also 
Byron's poem, 

The Assyrian came clown like the wolf on the fold, 
.^nd his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold. 
The sheen of his spears was like stars on the sea, 
When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. 
EL. M. T. — 4 




42 



The Chaldeans 43 

With the fall of Nineveh the bloody career of the Assyrian Em- 
pire was ended. The lands lying east of the Tigris River were 
taken by the Medes, and those lying westward fell to the Baby- 
lonians. The Medes were an Aryan or Indo-European people, the 
first of their group to make a name in history. 

33. The Chaldeans ; the City of Babylon. — One of the great 
human waves that foiled from Arabia into the lower valle}- of the 
Euphrates was composed of the Chaldeans. The}' merged with 
the Babylonians and the two peoples established a great empire 
under Nebuchadrezzar (neb-u-kad-rez'ar), a monarch more re- 
nowned even than Hammurabi the lawgiver. We know him best 
as the rebuilder of Babylon and the despoiler of the Hebrews. 
He captured Jerusalem in 586 b.c. and carried to Babylon great 
numbers of the people. " By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat 
down," wailed the psalmist, " yea, we wept when we remembered 
Zion." 1 

Of all the cities of antiquity the greatest was Babjdon. Even 
Rome was inferior in size and magnificence. The origin of this 
wonderful city of the Euphrates is lost in the twilight of legend 
and fable. Destroyed and rebuilt at various times, it reached the 
height of its glor}^ under Nebuchadrezzar. - 

The circumference of the city was forty miles, but the entire 
area was not covered with buildings. There were fields, orchards, 
and gardens within the city limits. The whole was inclosed by a 
great brick wall, nearly a hundred feet in height and pierced by 
nearly a hundred gates. Outside the wall was a deep moat filled 
with water. On the summit were 250 towers, arranged in pairs, 
one on the inside and another opposite it on the outside, and so 
thick was the wall that on the top of it two chariots could pass 
each other between the towers. 

Within the city were many magnificent buildings, including 

' Sec II Kings, chs. 24 and 25 ; also the 137th Psalm. 

■^ Babylon was built nf brick, and many of the walls were ailorncd with figures 
of bulls, as shown in the picture on the opposite page. The site was for centuries 
covered deep with dust and earth, the accumulation of ages. Only a small part of 
it has been uncovered. 



44 The Oriental Peoples 

the great palace of the king, the temple of the god Bel, and the 
hanging gardens. The king's palace, including its outer walls, 
was three miles in circumference. The hanging gardens were 
built, it is said, by the great king to please his Median wife, who 
in her native home had been accustomed to mountain scenery. 
It was a square building of receding terraces supported by arches 
and columns. The terraces were covered with earth on which 
grew flowers, shrubs, and trees. 

Such was the great Babylonian capital when in the midst of 
Belshazzar's feast with a thousand of his lords the handwriting 
on the wall indicated the doom that was soon to follow.^ 




Bringing Tribute to the Persian King 
Bas-relief from a palace at Persep'olis. 

34. Cyrus the Great and the Persian Empire. — The Chaldean 
Empire was short-lived. About 550 b.c. the Chaldeans were 
conquered by a people who swarmed in great numbers into the 
valley of the twin rivers from the highlands of south-central Asia — 
.the Persians, an Arj^an or Indo-European people closely allied with 
the Medes. This was nearly 2500 years ago. For thousands of 
years, from the earliest dawn of history, the Hamitic and Semitic 
peoples had been the leaders of human progress ; but from that 
day to the present the Indo-European branch of the Caucasian 
race has been master of the civilization of the world. 

Cy'rus the Great, the conqueror of Babylon and the builder of 
the Persian Empire, was one of the most admirable rulers of ancient 
1 See Daniel, ch. 5. 



The Persians 45 

times. He made many conquests, but he was neither cruel nor 
selfisli in his relations to those who came under his rule. He 
released the Jews from their captivity and i^crmitted them to 
return to their beloved land. 

The Persian Empire reached its height under Dari'us, about 
500 B.C., when it extended from the Indus River in India to 
the yEgean Sea, and embraced nearly all of the known world. 
From the capital, Susa (sob'sa), great roads radiated to many 
parts of the empire. One of them, extending nearly to the /Egean, 
was about 1700 miles long. The Persian Empire flourished a little 
more than two hundred years ; its wars with the Greeks will be 
noticed in later chapters. 

II. Life and Progress of the Mesopotamian Peoples 

35. Excavations and Discoveries. — For many ages the histor}' 
of the valley of the two rivers, where had flourished a teeming 
population for a period longer than that between the time of 
Moses and our own day, remained almost unknown. In 1843 a.d. 
a Frenchman discovered, under a hillock near the Tigris, the ruined 
palace of an Assyrian king. This remarkable discover}', which 
proved to be on the site of Nineveh, drew the attention of Europe 
and America to the possible historic treasures of the great valley, 
and many expeditions have been sent to search out the ruins of the 
buried cities. 

Vast numbers of tablets, statues, and inscriptions have been 
found. These include a great library at Nineveh and the Code 
of Hammurabi at Susa. From these a great deal has been learned 
of the customs, laws, government, and wars of those interesting 
people of the past ; but much remains yet to be learned, and the 
work is still going on. During the military operations of the 
British in Mesopotamia in the World War, it was found that 
the sites of buried ruins, because of variations in the vegetation 
over them, could be easily detected by means of photographs 
taken from airplanes. 

The Egyptian writing, as we have seen, grew up from pictures 



46 



The Oriental Peoples 



and symbols. The Sumerian writing, used also by the Babylo- 
nians and Assyrians, was likewise made up of pictures at first, but 
these word signs were then changed so much, for rapid writing, 

that they no longer looked like pic- 
tures. A word sign or syllable sign 
was made up of a number of small 
marks shaped like a wedge. This 
writing is therefore termed cune- 
iform (ku-ne'i-form), from the Latin 
cu'neus, a wedge. Each wedge- 
shaped mark was made by pressing 
the end of. a stylus into a tablet of 
soft clay ; when the writing was fin- 
ished the clay was baked, making 
the record permanent.^ 

36. A Very Old Schoolhouse. — 
The discovery of the ruins of a 
Babylonian schoolhouse supposed to 
be of the time of Hammurabi, 4000 
years ago, was made in 1894 by 
European excavators. It was a large 
one-story building of sun-dried brick 
with several rooms, the outer walls 
inclosing an inner court that opened 
to the sky. In this building perhaps for many generations the 
young people sat on their rude seats and pored over their mud 
slates learning to write. 

Instead of a pencil or a pen the Babylonian and Assyrian boys and 
girls used a straight-cut stick or reed called a stylus. When pressed 
into soft clay this made a straight mark, wider at one end than 
the other, giving the appearance of a wedge. The syllable or word 

1 The Behistun (ba-his-toon') rock, a cliff in Persia 1700 feet in height, has done 
for modern scholars in Babylonia what the Rosetta stone did in Egypt. About 
500 feet above the ground are inscriptions in three languages, — Persian, Susian, 
and Babylonian, all chiseled in cuneiform about 500 B.C. They were read first in 
1835-184S by Sir Henry RawUnson. 




CuxEU-'ORM Tablet 

Unearthed by the Babylonian Ex- 
pedition of the University of Penn- 
sylvania. This records the sale of 
part of a house about 2000 B.C. 



Babylonians and Assyrians 47 

to be written was indicated by the differing positions and combi- 
nations of the marks, as illustrated in the figure below. 

When the bo_vs and girls arrived at school, each on entering the 
door received a ball of soft clay. This was flattened out with a 
flat piece of wood and it served as a slate or pencil tablet. If 
the work was not well done the pupil could erase it by again 
smoothing over the clay. He had to learn several hundred syl- 
lables and words, and we can imagine that it required months and 

If -T Jf T"T4:f It ^ ^^ ^ ►►^A < ^ X- f^ 

Cuneiform Writing 

Translation : " I am Assurbanipal, descendant of Assur and Beltis." Assurbanipal 
was a king of Assyria. 

perhaps years to learn to write. On the floor of the above-men- 
tioned schoolhouse man}^ of the clay balls and written tablets 
were found. 

37. Social Conditions and Contrasts. — The cuneiform tablets 
tell us of the gods and the kings and the battles of Mesopotamian 
nations, but not much of the common people. However, of the 
life of the people we can gather a little here and there. 

The Babylonians were more cultured, more generally educated, 
more religious, and more industrious than the Assyrians. In 
Babjdon the priest was supreme, the king himself being a priest ; 
in Assyria the army was supreme and the king was a general. 

In both countries polygamy was legal, but was practiced only 
by the rich. If a man had no children he adopted children, who 
became his legal heirs. Herodotus, the Greek historian, relates 
that in Babylonian towns it was at one time the custom to as 
semble all the girls of a certain age once a year to give them in 
marriage. The prettiest were sold to the highest bidders, and the 
money they brought was used to purchase husbands for the 
plainest. 

Among the rich the process of arranging a marriage was inter- 
esting. The father of the j'oung man, after consulting with the 



48 The Oriental Peoples 

mother as to whom they would hke for a daughter-in-law, would 
propose to the parents of the young lady on whom the choice fell. 
Perhaps the prospective bride is a girl of only thirteen or fourteen 
years. She may be accomplished. That is, she can sing and play 
the harp ; she can keep house and can write on clay tablets. The 
two fathers meet and bargain, perhaps for a whole day, fixing the 
bride's dowry. It is finally decided that she shall have a certain 
amount of furniture, chests and clothing, household necessities, 
and three slaves. These slaves were probably in the home when 
she was born and they have known her from infancy. The 
wedding is set for one week later. 

The young girl is informed that she is to be married in a week, 
and she spends a busy week in preparation. Her girl friends come 
in to help and advise her and above alL " to chatter noisily all day 
long." As the happy day approaches she adorns herself. She 
blackens her eyebrows and paints her cheeks ; she dyes the palms 
of her hands and her finger nails. Her future husband has never, 
seen her and she is anxious that his first view of his bride be pleas- 
ing to him. 

The wedding day has come. The astrologers have consulted 
the stars and pronounced it a lucky day. The marriage is sol- 
emnized with religious ceremony ; the bride's veil is lifted ; the 
remainder of the day is spent in dancing and merrymaking to 
the music of the harp. As night comes the young bride must 
leave her childhood home. She bursts into tears and clings long 
to her mother — a part of the ceremony. Then in the company 
of her husband she wends her way on foot to their new home. 

38. Government and "War. — Like all the other great Oriental 
nations. Babylonia and Assyria were absolute monarchies. The 
people were docile and ever ready to obey their masters ; and even 
to this day the peoples of the Orient are less conscious of political 
and civil rights than those of Europe and America. 

The kings of Babylonia and Assyria governed through a grand 
vizier and other royal officers. Assyria was the imitator of 
Babylonia in many respects, but in the art of war she far surpassed 



Babylonians and Assyrians 



49 



her southern neighbor. One reason for this was that Assyria was 
the first great nation to use iron instead of bronze weapons. In 
one room the modern excavators of Nineveh found two hundred 
tons of iron war-implements. 

An Assyrian warrior was thoroughly trained and he was better 
equipped than any other warrior of his time. The spearmen wore 
conical iron caps with side pieces to protect the ears. The chest 
was protected by a leather shirt with overlapping metal scales, 
and in addition the whole body was protected by an immense. 




Assyrian War Chariots 
From an Assyrian bas-relief. Notice that each chariot is drawn by three horses. 

metal shield. The archers wore no shields and instead of a spear 
each one carried a bow and qui\'er. The Assyrian chariot was 
larger and heavier than the Egyptian. It carried two or three 
men — a driver, a warrior, and often a groom to protect the other 
two with a large shield. 

39. Religion. — The people of the great valley were very reli- 
gious ; ilu'ir art, their literature, and their arc-hitocture were 
inspired by religion. The Assyrians borrowed llieir religion for 
the most part from Babylon, but they called their chief god -Assur, 
while in Raliylon the cliicf god was called Marduk, or Bel. Be- 
low the.se supreme gods were many inferior ones representing the 



50 



The Oriental Peoples 



sun, the moon, the stars, and other objects of nature. Moreover, 
man}' demons and evil spirits were supposed to be prowling around 
to do men harm. These had to be banished bv magic and sorcerv. 




S-nte^fel^S^ 



Marduk, Armed with Thunderbolts, in Battle with the Spirit of 

Chaos 

Babylonian bas-relief now in the British Museum. 

The Persians gave the ancient world one of the great religious 
leaders of history — Zoroaster (z6-ro-as'ter), who flourished some- 
time before 700 B.C. 

Zoroaster taught that there are two great gods, one good and 
the other evil. The good god, Ormazd (or'muzd), created the 
human race and everj^thing that is good — light and fire, water, 
the grains and fruits of the earth, and all other things that con- 
tribute to man's welfare. The wicked god, Ah'riman, created 
all that is harmful and unclean — cold, darkness, drought, thorns 
and thistles, serpents and noisome in.sects. 

Between the two gods there was continuous warfare, the one 



Babylonians, Assyrians, Persians 51 

striving to aid man and give him comfort, the other to annoy and 
distress him. Man's religious duties consisted in aiding Ormazd 
in overcoming evil. It was a religious act to build a fire, to raise 
grain or fruit, or to kill serpents and other unclean animals. 
Zoroaster taught that in the end Ormazd would reign triumphant 
over all things and that the soul of the righteous would rest forever 
in his bosom. The religion of Zoroaster was embraced by mil- 
lions of people. It flourished for more than a thousand years, 
but in the seventh century a. d. it was almost stamped out by the 
Mohammedan armies. 

40. Literature ; Architectiire ; Sculpture. — The literature of 
Babylonia was chiefly religious, composed of myths, legends, and 
hymns to the gods. There were histories also, recounting the 
doings of the kings, and works on science, especially astronomy. 
In certain long poems called epics we find an account of the 
Creation b}' one of the great gods, and an account of the flood 
which in some respects is strikingh' similar to the account given 
in the Book of Genesis. 

The Babylonians were great builders, but as the alluvial bottom 
of the great valley' was without building stone, the material used 
was brick. Their brick buildings, unhke the stone structures of 
Egypt, have crumbled to dust. We learn from the inscriptions 
that many of them were grand and imposing, and some of them, 
built in receding stories, reached a great height. 

Sculpture was employed in adorning the walls of the temples 
and palaces. But Babylonian sculpture, like that of Eg^'pt, was 
without perspective, was stiff and monotonous and wanting in 
grace. 

The Assyrians used both stone and brick in their buildings, and 
their sculpture marked some advance over the Babylonian 
models ; but they fell far short of the standards later set by the 
Greeks. 

• 41. Chaldean Astrology and Astronomy. — Through the clear 
atmosphere of Babylonia the stars gleam with marvelous bril- 
liancy, and the Chaldean priests from the earliest times studied 



52 The Oriental Peoples 

the heavens. They devised a system of astrology by which they 
foretold a man's career by the position of the stars and planets, at 
the moment of his birth. Thousands of years later we find 
Chaldean astrology dififused over Europe, and to this day such 
expressions as " lucky star" and " thank my stars " attest our in- 
heritance from those remote ages. 

From astrology the Chaldeans and Babylonians rose to the 
study of astronomy. It is true that their premises were false 
and their conclusions were often erroneous. They believed the 
earth to be a great inverted bowl or shell, its outer edges resting 
on the great outer ocean. The sky, they thought, was another, 
greater bowl ; its concave side, in which the stars were placed, 
being turned toward the earth. 

In spite of such erroneous notions it is remarkable how much 
they learned about the universe, as they studied the sky year after 
year and century after century from their lofty temples. Like 
the Egyptians, they determined the length of the year and di- 
vided it into months and weeks. Their day was divided into 
twelve hours, each hour being double one of our own. They 
learned to foretell eclipses with accuracy. They measured time 
by the sundial and the water clock. They distinguished the 
planets, of which they knew but five, from the stars, and gave 
their names to five of the days of the week. It may be said that 
astronomical studies of all nations since those early times have 
been based on the findings of the Chaldeans and Babylonians. 
It is from them also that we have our division of the hour into 
sixty minutes, of the minute into sixty seconds ; for in the Baby- 
lonian system of counting the number sixty had the same impor- 
tance that the number one hundred has in our system. 

III. The Hebrews and Phcenicians 

42. Palestine and its People. — In a little country about half 
the size of West Virginia, lying between the Jordan River and the 
Dead Sea on the east and the Mediterranean on the west, dwelt 
a pastoral people who have maintained to this day a separate 



The Hebrews 



S3 




A Nazaritli 

^ lKts{:iiOM OF ' 



existence as no other ancient people have done. They were the 
Jews or Hebrews, a Semitic people whose ancestor, Abraham, had 
migrated from the Bab_vlonian land be_vond the Euphrates. 

Palestine was a goodly land. The climate was healthful. The 
soil, of varying fertilit}^ was broken b)' hills and gorges with here 
and there a plain, and the hills were covered with vines and olive, 
fig, and almond trees. The valleys abounded in luxuriant pas- 
tures. Through the countr}' ran the 
routes of trade between the empires 
of the Nile and the Euphrates val- 
leys. 

The peculiar people who occupied 
this little land between the rushing 
Jordan and the great Midland Sea 
have profoundh^ influenced the civi- 
lized world of to-da5^ To them we 
are indebted for a fine portion of 
our literature and for most of our 
religion. 

We are justl}' proud of our modern 
democrac}', but the Hebrews lived 
for centuries under an almost pure 
democracy more than 3000 years 
ago and long before the Greeks es- 
tablished their democracies. Our equality before the law had its 
prototype among the Jude'an hills. We boast of our humane 
societies and homes for the aged and poor ; the whole Hebrew 
commonwealth was a humane society — the beast of burden was 
given its da}' of rest the same as man, the nesting bird could not 
be taken, and the reaper had to leave something in the field to 
be gleaned by the widow and the fatherless. 

43. Hebrew History. — Our knowledge of the history of the 
Hebrews is derived almost wholly from their sacred books, the 
writing of which covered many centuries. In their collected form 
we know them as the Old Testament, which is by far the most 



KINGDOM V 
JUDAH ^ 






Palestine 



54 The Oriental Peoples 

important national record given to the world by any people before 
the rise of the Greek nation. 

It is needless here to recount the story so well known — of Abra- 
ham and his simple pastoral life, of Jacob and his twelve sons, of 
the selling of Joseph by his jealous brothers, of the long sojourn 
in Egypt and the long wandering in the wilderness under the 
leadership of the great lawgiver Moses. 

When the Hebrews took possession of part of Palestine, they • 
set up what we should call a republic, but after several hundred 
years they grew tired of their form of government and changed 
it into a kingdom, in imitation of the nations about them. The 
first three kings, Saul, David, and Solomon, were able rulers 
and each ruled forty years. David was one of the great men 
of the ancient world. He was not only a statesman and war- 
rior, but he was a poet of a high order of merit. The kingdom 
reached its greatest glor}^ under Solomon (tenth century B.C.). He 
made an alliance with Hiram, king of Tyre, and carried on an ex- 
tensive trade with Egypt and with other lands. He built a mag- 
nificent temple and sumptuous palaces. Against the principles of 
the Jewish religion, Solomon took an Egyptian wife and assume'd 
the pomp of an Oriental monarch. He taxed the people to the 
breaking point. After his death, when his son refused to lighten 
the burdens of the people, ten of the twelve tribes revolted and 
set up a separate kingdom. 

The two remaining tribes retained Jerusalem as their capital, 
and were known as the kingdom of Judah ; the ten revolting tribes 
were known as the kingdom of Israel (iz'ra-el). Though often 
friendly, the two were never reunited, arid after the time of 
Solomon the Hebrews never held a commanding position among 
the powers. The ten tribes of Israel were conquered and carried 
away by the Assyrians (722 b.c.) and were thus " lost " as a 
separate nation. The two tribes of Judah were rescued from a 
similar fate by Cyrus the Great (sec. 34) ; but thenceforth their 
home land was but a province in one empire after another, with 
brief intervals of freedom. 



The Hebrews 55 

44. Hebrew Religion. — The Hebrew religion differed greatl,v 
from that of any other ancient people. The chief point of differ- 
ence lay in the fact that the Hebrews alone were monotheistic, 
that is, believers in one God ; all other ancient peoples were 
polytheistic, believers in man}' gods. The Hebrews taught that 
there is one Almighty God (Yahveh or Jehovah) who created and 
sustains the universe, and that all other gods with their local and 
limited interests and power were but figments of the imagination. 

Other important differences between the Hebrew religion and 
Other religions were: (i) Other nations worshiped idols and 
heavenly bodies and mundane objects ; the Jews were forbidden 
to do so, or even to make unto themselves or bow down to any 
graven image or likeness of anything in the heavens above or on 
the earth beneath. (2) Again, nearl}' all ancient peoples claimed 
divine descent for their rulers. No such claim was ever made by 
the Hebrews. (3) Finally, the Hebrew religion was the only 
ancient religion that furnished no direct teaching concerning a 
future life. This is explained by the Christian world as having 
been divinely designed in order that this final and supreme 
revelation should be reserved for the One who was to be bom to 
the house of David in the fullness of time. It is a remarkable 
fact that the Hebrew sacred books are adopted by the people of 
every nation of Europe and America, constituting nearly all there 
is of modem civilization, as an accepted part of their religious 
foundations. 

45. Hebrew Literature. — In art, science, sculpture, and archi- 
tecture the Hebrews did not excel. Doubtless the injunction 
against making graven images and likenesses had something to 
do with discouraging such pursuits. But in literature they far 
surpassed any other people of their time. 

The Book of Job is pronounced by many the greatest poem 
in human language, but it does not greatly surpass the Psalms 
of David and the Prophecy of Isaiah (T-za'ya). Many other parts 
of the Old Testament are of great literary merit. The stately 
grandeur of the story of Creation in the opening chapters, the 



5 6 The Oriental Peoples 

pastoral simplicity of the story of Joseph and of the Book of Ruth, 
are unrivaled in their literary charm. 

46. The Phoenicians. — Phoenicia, " the land of Tyre and 
Sidon," was a strip of coast but a few miles wide and one hun- 
dred fifty miles in length, between the lofty range of the Lebanon 
Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea. In shape it was similar 
to the modem Chile in South America, 

The Phoenicians were Semites, akin to the Hebrews, with a 
similar language but an immeasurably inferior religion. They 
were the trading people of antiquity. They " took to the sea " 
no doubt because their narrow little country could not support 
their growing population. Fearless and daring, they patiently 
plowed the seas with their swan-breasted craft built of the cedars 
of Lebanon, and to avoid awakening rivals they tried to keep 
secret their routes and their discoveries. ^ They brought tin from 
the British Isles and silver and gold from Spain, birds from the 
Canary Islands, pearls and ivory from India, and fine linen and 
embroideries from Egypt. For hundreds of years the Phoenicians 
controlled the trade of the Mediterranean. 

The Phoenicians also took the lead in trading by land. In 
Babylonia and Egypt they had their trading posts, and held them 
when threats of war frightened other foreigners away. The 
spices, perfumes, and incenses from Arabia for Greece and the 
West passed through Phoenician hands. 

In art and science the Phoenicians seldom originated new ideas, 
but they developed the ideas of others and became the most skill- 
ful textile workers of the ancient world. Their chief product was 
a purple dye derived from the murex, a small shellfish. At many 
of their trading posts the Phoenicians founded colonies, and one 
of these, Carthage (kar'thaj) in north Africa, came to surpass the 
mother country. 

For many centuries the Phoenicians were regarded as the in- 
ventors of the first alphabet. Recent researches, however, dis- 
close the fact that the Egyptians had a phonetic alphabet at least 

• For the trade of Tyre read the 27th chapter of Ezekiel. 



The Phoenicians 



57 



3000 years B.C., which is 2000 years earlier than the Phoenicians 
are credited with having invented it. There is also evidence that 
an alphabet was in use in Crete at a very early age. To what ex- 
tent the Phoenicians borrowed the idea of the alphabet from Egypt 





I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


haw k 


\ 


i^ 


K 


A 


A 


crane 


^ 


^ 


5 


B 


B 


throne 





%it* S 


7 A 


r 


C 


hand 


c-^ 


■^^ 


A ^ 


A 


D 


meander 


ra 


mni 


^ 


E 


E 



Development of the Alphabet 

I, Egyptian hieroglyphic; 2, Egyptian hieratic, or script form of hieroglyphic; 
3, Phoenician ; 4, Greek ; 5, Roman. 



or Babylonia or Crete has not been determined. It remains true, 
however, that the Phoenician alphabet is the one from which ours 
is derived. The Phoenicians carried the alphabet to Greece and 
the Greeks gave it to Rome. 

47. Our Heritage from the Orient. — With this brief review of 
the ancient lands of the Orient — Egypt, Mesopotamia, and adja- 
cent regions — we must take our leave of these interesting peoples, 
as in later times they contributed little to the progress and de- 
velopment of the world's civilization. 

As we have seen, we are indebted to the Orient for many of the 
indispensable features of our modern life. Aside from the 
common inheritance from prehistoric man of the use of fire, of 
metals, and the growth of language, and in addition to the un- 
measured influence of the Hebrew religion on the world of to-day, 
our debt to the Orientals is immense. To them we are indebted 
for the beginnings of our system of astronomy, of art and sculpture, 
of architecture, and indeed of almost all our arts and sciences. 
We have accepted almost without change their divisions of the 

EL. M. T. — 5 



58 The Oriental Peoples 

year into months and days and their division of the day into hours, 
minutes, and seconds. They gave us the alphabet and the means 
of writing, indispensable to all civilization. Even in the indus- 
trial pursuits — weaving, wood carving, working in iron, ship- 
building, and other things — our debt to these people of a long 
past age is very great. 

Side Talk 

The Story of Croesus. — In many languages the expression, " as rich 
as Croesus " is well known. Croesus was not only a man of great 
wealth, he was also the king of Lyd'ia, an extensive country in Asia 
Minor, from 560 to 546 B.C. Herodotus, the Greek historian, gives a 
very interesting account of the reign of this king. 

Many Greeks visited the court of Croesus, and he took delight in 
showing them his costly treasures. One of these Greeks was So'lon, 
the famous Athenian lawgiver. After Solon had been shown the 
wonderful treasures of the palace of Sardis, the capital of Lydia, Croesus 
asked him whom he considered the happiest man he had ever seen. 
This he asked because he thought himself the happiest of mortals, and 
expected Solon to agree with him. Solon answered, " Tellus of Athens." 
The king in astonishment asked why he thought as he did. Solon 
answered that it was because Tellus lived in a prosperous country, 
raised an interesting and excellent family, and after a long life of com- 
fort died gloriously in battle fighting for his country. He contended 
that happiness did not come from wealth, but rather from contentment, 
good health, and an upright life. 

The dominions of Croesus extended from the Ha'lys River to the 
^gean (e-je'an) Sea, and included many Greek cities. Following the 
Greek custom, he made rich presents to the oracle at Delphi (sec. 62), 
and asked for advice whether or not to make war on Cyrus, the king of 
Persia. The answer was " Croesus, having crossed the Halys, will 
destroy a great empire." He was thus encouraged to invade the terri- 
tory of Cyrus, but he was defeated and taken prisoner : the empire 
that he destroyed was his own. 

Cyrus ordered that a great pile be thrown up and Croesus be bound 
in fetters and cast upon it. It was then set on fire by order of 
Cyrus. Of this Herodotus says, " I know not whether Cyrus was 
minded to make an offering to some god or other, or whether he had 
vowed a vow and was performing it, or whether he had heard that 
Croesus was a holy man, and so wished to see if any of the heavenly 
powers would appear to save him from being burned alive." 



The Story of Croesus 59 

As the flames crept near Croesus cried out, " Solon, Solon, Solon." 
Cyrus heard him and bade the interpreters find out the meaning. He 
told them of the Athenian sage and expressed the wish that every 
monarch could hear his words of wisdom. King Cyrus became in- 
terested and ordered his men to put out the fire. They tried to do so 
but found it impossible. Suddenly a dashing shower of rain fell and 
quenched the blaze. Cyrus was convinced that some god had sent 
the rain to save the life of the Lydian king. He ordered that Croesus 
be unbound and brought to sit beside him. Croesus begged that 
Sardis be not destroyed nor the people sold into slavery. Cyrus granted 
the favor and made Crcesus a companion in his campaigns. 

Questions and Topics. — I. In what respects do the Euphrates and 
Tigris rivers resemble the Nile? Why do people choose a river valley 
for a home rather than a mountainous region? What do you know 
of the Sumerians? of Hammurabi and his code of laws? Why were 
the Assyrians more warlike than the Babylonians? Describe ancient 
Babylon. What was the important racial difference between the 
Babylonians and the Persians? Describe the Persian Empire. 

II. Describe cuneiform writing. What is the Behistun rock? In 
what respects do the Babylonians and Assyrians differ? Describe a 
Babylonian wedding. What is the difference as regards political rights 
between the Orientals and the Americans? Describe the Assyrian 
warrior. Contrast the religion of the Babylonians with that of the 
Persians. Who was the founder of the Persian religion? Why has 
Babylonian architecture perished while that of Egypt still exists? 
What fundamental errors were there in the Chaldean system of astron- 
omy ? How did the Chaldeans divide the day, the hour, and the minute ? 

III. Describe the topography of Palestine. Give a brief history 
of the Hebrews. What is monotheism? In what respects did the 
Hebrew religion differ from that of other nations? What do you know 
of Hebrew literature? For what were the Phoenicians noted? Why 
was the Phoenician alphabet important? In what respects is our 
modern life affected by the ancient Orient? 

Events and Characters. — Hammurabi and his law code, 2100 B.C. 
Assyrian monarchy. Fall of Nineveh, 606 B.C. Cyrus the Great founds 
Persian Empire, rescues the Jews from captivity. 

For Further Reading. — Maspero, Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria. 
Botsford, Source Book of Ancient History. Morey, Ancient Peoples. 
Seignobos, History of Ancient Civilization, Chs. IV, VII, and VIII; 
this book, translated from the French, is interesting and scholarly. 



ANCIENT GREECE 

CHAPTER IV 
PREHISTORIC GREECE 

I. The Land and the Early Inhabitants 

For several thousand years the highest forms of human civiliza- 
tion were confined to the Orient, while Europe was peopled only 
by uncultured barbarians. But about 500 years before our era 
the scepter passed across the narrow sea into Europe, and from 
that day to this the Europeans with their American descendants 
have led the world in civilization and progress. The first of the 
European peoples to loom in.o the light of history and to leave 
the world a record of themselves were the Greeks, who, from 
a mythical ancestor Hellen, called themselves Hellenes (hel'enz). 

48. The Land of the Hellenes. — Southern Europe is com- 
posed of three great peninsulas. The southern portion of the 
most easterly of these is Greece, which lies mainly between the 
Ionian (I-o'ni-an) and the ^gean seas. It is a small country, 
not so large as the state of Florida. The land is broken by 
rugged mountains and deep gorges. There are many narrow val- 
leys and rushing streams, too small and rapid for navigation. 
The country is cut by numerous bays and inlets, which extend far 
into the land and supply the place of navigable streams. One of 
these, the Gulf of Cor'inth, is a great rift almost severing the 
country into two parts. Another completely divides Euboe'a 
from the mainland (map following page 64) . 

Between the mainland and Asia Minor the sea is strewn with 
many islands, the peaks of submerged mountains. So numerous 
are these islands that the navigator of the ^gean Sea is never 
out of sight of land. These islands, and also the ^Egean coast of 

60 



The Land and the Early Inhabitants 



6i 



Asia Minor, were occupied by the ancient Greeks and shared with 
Greece proper in the great drama of Greek history. 

The climate of Greece is neither cold nor hot. It is bracing, 
tempered by the nearness of the sea, and well adapted to promote 
a vigorous race. The gorgeous landscape, the gleaming heavens, 
and the ever-murmuring sea at the foot of the mountains inspired 
this remarkable people with their love of the beautiful and sub- 
lime, which found expression in their literature and art. The soil 










Clay Tablet from Crete, 
Showing Minoan Writing 



So-called "Throne of Minos" 
Found at Cnossus in Crete 



The center of Minoan civilization four thousand years ago, Crete was later con- 
quered by Greeks, Romans, Venetians (ve-ne'shanz), and Turks. Turkish rule 
was not ended till near the end of the nineteenth century. The island is now 
part of modern Greece. 

of Greece was not well adapted to agriculture, but the valleys and 
hillsides abounded in vines and in fig and olive trees. 

49. The People who Preceded the Greeks. — The Greeks 
were not the first people to occupy Greece. Within the past half 
century it has been discovered that a highh^ civilized people oc- 
cupied Greece, the /Egean Islands, western Asia Minor, and 
Crete about 2000 b.c. and earlier, before the coming of the Greeks. 
They are called Mino'ans from the name of a traditional king of 
Crete, for this island was the center of their civilization. 



62 Ancient Greece 

Recent excavations in Crete have revealed evidence of an ad- 
vanced prehistoric civihzation. Many palaces have been un- 
earthed, that of Cnossus (nos'sus) in the northern part being the 
most important. Since 1900 a.d. more than two thousand clay 
tablets have been found in the ruins of this palace, but no one 
has yet been able to read them. 

In various parts of the island stone vases and ivory figures 
have been found, and, on the walls of the palaces, lifelike scenes of 
warriors, wrestlers, and gladiators, and miniature figures of court 
ladies. 

Excavations of ancient Troy in Asia Minor, begun in 1870, and 
of Myce'nse in Greece, have proved wonderfully rich in historic 
relics. The Minoan civilization almost rivaled that of Egypt and 
Babylonia, but was on the decline at the coming of the Greeks. 
If some Rosetta stone or Behistun rock shall in future reveal the 
secrets of the clay tablets of the Minoans, a storehouse of rich 
historic lore will be opened. 

50. The Early Greeks. — It has been impossible to determine 
when the Greeks first arrived in the land that came to be called 
Greece ; it is supposed to have been as early as 2000 b.c. They 
came from the north as wandering shepherd tribes driving their 
flocks and herds. They had rude wooden carts drawn by horses, 
because they had tamed the wild horse and invented the cart. 
But they had not learned to write, and so left no written account 
of their journey. As time passed, their descendants, forgetting 
all about the long journey of their ancestors, came to believe that 
they were the product of the soil of Greece. 

The Greeks had a tradition of a flood, similar to the Bible record. 
In the far past, they said, the wickedness of man had provoked 
the gods to sweep the earth with a deluge. Only two people 
were saved — Deucalion and his wife, who floated in an ark. 
Later they had two sons. One of them was named Hellen. He 
became the ancestor of the Greek people, who always called them- 
selves Hellenes and their land Hellas. But the world has adopted 
the name Greek, which was given them by the Romans. 



The Land and the Early Inhabitants 63 

The descendants of Hellen, according to the legend, were 
divided into four great tribes — the Achaeans (a-ke'anz), the 
Do'rians, the lonians, and the ^o'lians. 

The first great wave of Greek nomads that swept southward 
over the land were the Achseans. A second wave, the Dorians, 
a more warlike people, came a few centuries later, perhaps about 
1500 B.C. The Dorians conquered their kinsmen the Achaeans, 
and the remaining IMinoans, and took possession of many islands, 
including Crete. Later the lonians occupied the middle portion 
of the country and the Cohans the northern part. It is believed 
that by 1000 b.c. the whole land, including the .-Egean Islands 
and the western coast of Asia ]\Iinor, was occupied by this virile 
nomadic people from the north. The Greeks belonged to the 
Indo-European race. Many of the Minoans no doubt remained 
after the conquest and were amalgamated with their con- 
querors. The Greeks of history were the descendants of the two 
races. 

WTien the Greeks came from the north they were in the pastoral 
stage (sec. 4). They wandered about in tribes, driving their flocks, 
fighting their neighbors, and hunting wild animals. The men and 
women dressed alike in the skins of the animals thus obtained.' 
But at length they began to till the soil. Their farm implements 
were very crude and the soil was not very fertile, but the industry 
proved a great step in the direction of a higher civilization. It 
not only furnished them with a new source of obtaining food in 
addition to their herds, but also led them to settle dowm and be- 
come landowmers with fixed homes and to develop a better form 
of government. 

51. Coming of the Phcenicians. — The rude barbarian nomads 
whom we have seen rolling in great waves from the Balkan re- 
gions into Greece were destined to build up the finest civilization 
of ancient times. The development of Greek civilization may 
be said to have had three basal causes: (i) the Greeks were by 

' So it is related by Thucydides (thu-sIdl-dSz), a Greek historian of the fifth 
century B.C. 



64 Ancient Greece 

nature strong, vigorous, and highly intellectual ; (2) they picked 
up from the vanishing race that occupied the land before them the 
rudiments of a settled life and a higher culture; (3) they came 
into early contact with the civilized nations of the Orient, es- 
pecially the Phoenicians. 

The Phoenicians were the great traders of antiquity (sec. 46). 
They were not long in finding the newcomers in yEgean lands, 
not long in making them good customers for their wares. We 
can picture the mooring of a Phoenician vessel in one of the many 
fine harbors on the coast of Greece, and the eager gatherings of 
the skin-clad natives, men and women, to gaze with curious eyes 
on the wonders from the eastern lands. Here they saw many 
things beautiful and useful which they did not produce at home 
— carvings in wood and metal, alabaster and glass bottles, combs 
of polished ivory, porcelain wares, woven fabrics of wool and linen 
richly colored, jewelry and ornamental vases, and metal farm im- 
plements far better than any made in Greece. 

The Greeks were an artistic people and they were imitative. 
They not only purchased freely from the eastern merchants, trad- 
ing the products of their herds and of the olive and the vine for 
the Oriental wares, but they also greatly improved their own work 
with these models before them. At length they excelled their 
teachers. In decorative art they surpassed not only the Phoeni- 
cians, but all other peoples of antiquity. 

The greatest gift brought to the Greeks by the Phoenicians 
was the alphabet as a means of writing, the greatest instrument 
of civilization. The Phoenician traders kept their accounts on 
Egyptian papyrus, using an alphabet of twenty-two letters. The 
imitative Greeks borrowed this alphabet, made some improve- 
ments in it, and adapted it to Greek words.^ It is supposed that 
the Greeks learned to write about 900 B.C. From this time forth 
their advance in culture and civilization was very rapid. 

1 Our word alphabet comes from the names of the first two letters of the Greek 
alphabet, Alpha (A) and Beta (B) . The Greeks had borrowed these names, changed 
somewhat, from the Phoenician Aleph and Beth. 



1 




F.oUo\Y,ing' 64 



I 







O PAROS 



^t^ENOs "};^^^ ^-^"^^ 






■^ >Miletu3 





The Land and the Early Inhabitants 65 

52. Divisions of the Land. — The Greeks claimed a common 
ancestor, worshiped the same gods, and spoke the same language ; 
but they were never a united people. There were perhaps two 
reasons for this : first, their dwelling amid the wilds of the moun- 
tain regions had fostered in them a spirit of unrestrained liberty, 
and second, their land was so broken and divided by mountains 
and gorges that communication was difficult. In the early days 
the governments in Greece were merely those of great families or 
clans, but later when the people became more settled the clans 
combined and formed little kingdoms, of which there were several 
hundred. Many of tlie kingdoms at length gave way to the 
larger Greek states. 

The Greek states were city-states, similar to those of early 
Babylonia (sec. 29). Usually the surrounding territory, with its 
villages and farm lands, belonged to the city. Some of these 
city-states, as Athens, included considerable territory ; others 
were scared}^ more than the city and its immediate suburbs. 

These little independent nations made war and peace and had 
their foreign relations. Sometimes thej^ were in league with one 
another, again they were at war among themselves. The most 
famous of the Greek cities were Athens, in At'tica, and Sparta, in 
Laco'nia, a division of southern Greece. Laconia was the south- 
eastern section of the Peloponne'sus, a name given to that portion 
of the Grecian mainland south of the Gulf of Corinth. Athens 
and Sparta will be treated more fully in a later chapter. 

A few of the other more important divisions of Greece should 
be noted: (i) Arca'dia ^ occupied the central portion of the 
Peloponnesus and was shut off from the sea by mountain barriers. 
It was the home of a simple pastoral people. To this day we speak 
of rustic country life as " Arcadian." To the northeast of Ar- 
cadia was (2) Corin'thia, which comprised the narrow neck of 
land joining the Pe'oponnesus with central Greece; in it was 
situated the famous city of Corinth. (,^) K'lis, in the western 

' These divisions of Greece should be studied in connection with the map which 
precedes this page. 



66 Ancient Greece 

part of the Peloponnesus, was noted for the city of Olympia, the 
seat of the famous Olympian games. 

Among the divisions of central Greece were (4) Boeotia (be-6'- 
shi-a), a large section northwest of Attica, with its renowned city 
of Thebes (thebz), and (5) Phocis, the seat of the famous oracle of 
Delphi. 

In northern Greece were two extensive countries, (6) Epi'rus, 
which stretches far along the coast of the Ionian Sea, and (7) 
Thes'saly, which consists for the most part of an extensive and 
beautiful valley, the only large valley in all Greece. In the north- 
eastern corner of Thessaly rises the lonely peak Mt. Olympus, the 
loftiest in Greece. It was here, according to the Greek mythology, 
that the gods dwelt. 

II. Mythical Heroes and Legends 

53. Importance of the Myths. — The historical period of Greece 
does not begin before the eighth century B.C. At the dawn of 
Greek history there was a wealth of fable and mythology such as 
no other people ever possessed. Many of the wonderful stories 
of the heroic past, which had been handed down unwritten from 
generation to generation, were doubtless founded on facts ; others 
were pure fiction. Even after Greece had reached the height of 
her civilization the deeds of the gods and the demigods and the 
heroes of the mythical past continued to be celebrated in song and 
story, in poetry, art, and sculpture. The Greeks believed these 
legends, were inspired by them, and built their civilization upon 
them. No student can understand Greek history without some 
knowledge of the legends of the early period. 

54. Mythical Founders of Cities. — ■ One group of legends is 
made up of the mythical accounts of the founding of cities. The 
rocky eminence on which Athens was founded was first occupied, 
according to the fable, by Ce'crops, half man and half dragon. 
He grouped the people into tribes and started them on the way of 
civilized life. 



Mythical Heroes and Legends 67 

The story of the founding of the Boeotian city of Thebes is 
more dramatic. Cadmus was a son of a king of Phoenicia. His 
sister Euro'pa was stolen away by the god Zeus (zus ; Jupiter), 
and Cadmus searched for her many years. At length he came to 
Boeotia and slew a dragon. A voice commanded him to sow the 
dragon's teeth, which he did. Presently a crop of armed men 
sprang up. They fell to fighting and all were slain but five. 
These five joined with Cadmus in building the city of Thebes. 
Cadmus was said to have brought the alphabet from Phoenicia 
and to have taught the people to write. 

Pe'lops was a hero from Lydia, a kingdom in Asia Minor. He 
was a suitor for the hand of a princess, the daughter of the king 
of a city in Elis. The king had decreed that in order to win his 
daughter, a suitor must defeat him in a chariot race from Elis 
to the Isthmus of Corinth. The penalty for losing was death. 
Thirteen had made the attempt. All had lost and all had been be- 
headed. But Pelops induced the king's charioteer to aid him by 
improperly fastening the wheels of the king's chariot. Pelops 
won the race and won his bride. He became the ancestor of 
many noted Greeks, and all southern Greece was called Pelopon- 
nesus after his name. 

55. Theseus, the Hero of Attica. — The Greeks had man)^ 
stories of heroes and demigods of the early period. Among these 
was Theseus (the'sus), son of ^geus (e'jus), king of Athens. 
Theseus became a mighty hero who went about the country slay- 
ing wild beasts and monsters. Of the many stories related of 
him, perhaps the most famous was his slaying of the Min'otaur. 
Long before the time of Theseus Athens had been at war with 
Crete. Athens was defeated, and the king of Crete exacted as 
tribute every year seven youths and seven maidens to feed the 
Minotaur, a devouring monster that was kept in a winding laby- 
rinth. Theseus volunteered to be one of the youths to be sacri- 
ficed. They set out in a vessel with black sails, and Theseus 
promised his father that if he were successful in slaying the mon- 
ster, he would return with white sails. 



68 Ancient Greece 

When they reached Crete, Ariad'ne, daughter of the Cretan 
king, fell in love with Theseus and secretly handed him a dagger 
with which to slay the monster. The Athenian prince succeeded 
in killing the Minotaur and set sail for Athens. But he forgot 
to change his black sails for white ones, and when his father 
iEgeus saw the black-sailed ship approaching he believed that 
his son was dead. In his grief he threw himself into the sea and 
was drowned. From this the sea was called after his name — 
the JEgezn Sea. 

56. Stories of Hercules. — The most famous of the mythical 
heroes of Greece was Hercules (hilr'ku-lez), called Heracles (her'- 
a-klez) by the Greeks. This hero was the son of a human mother, 
but his father was the god Zeus (Jupiter). When He'ra (Juno), 
the wife of Zeus, heard of the child's birth she was angry and she 
sent two huge serpents to destroy him in his cradle. But the 
infant hero seized the reptiles and strangled them. This was the 
beginning of his wonderful career of adventure. He spent his 
life fighting monsters and performing great deeds. For a year 
he was bound to serve the king of Mycenae, in the Peloponnesus, 
and the king gave him twelve labors to perform such as no hu- 
man being could have accomplished. 

The first of these was to slay the Neme'an lion, a ferocious 
beast of the Nemean forest (in Argolis) which carried off and 
devoured men, women, and live stock. Hercules strangled the 
monster as he had strangled the serpents when an infant. He 
then skinned it and ever after he was pictured with a lion skin 
hanging over his shoulder. 

Another of the twelve tasks was to clean the Auge'an stables. 
The king of Elis had immense droves of cattle. The stables which 
they occupied had not been cleaned for years, and Hercules was 
sent to clean them. He did this by changing the course of the 
Alphe'us River, a rushing stream hard by, and causing the water 
to run through the stables. 

One of the most charming of the stories of Hercules is the legend 
of his quest of the Golden Apples of the Hesperides (hes-per'i-dez) 



Mythical Heroes and Legends 



69 



This wonderful fruit was somewhere far away in the west, hang- 
ing on a tree in the midst of a beautiful garden, and the tree was 
guarded day and night by a dragon. In his long search the hero 
met with many adventures. The god of the sea directed him to 
Prometheus, in tlie Caucasus Mountains. Prometheus was 




Hercules Slaying the Xemeax Liox 

An early Greek vase painting. At the left are shown the nymph or local god- 
dess Nemea, and Jolaus, the brother and companion of Hercules, holding the 
hero's club ; at the right, the goddess Minerva and the god Mercury, watching 

the combat. 

being punished for having taught the human race to use fire (sec. 
6). He was bound to a mighty rock with an adamantine chain, 
and a vulture fed daily on his liver, which grew again every night. 
Here Prometheus had suffered for ages when the hero found him. 
Hercules slew the vulture and broke the chain. Prometheus 
then in gratitude told Hercules where to find the apples — far 
away in Africa, in the Garden of the Hesperides. Thither went 
Hercules, and with the aid of Atlas, who bore tlie heavens on liis 
shoulders, obtained the coveted prize and bore it back trium- 
phantly to the land of Greece. 



^o Ancient Greece 

57. Jason and the Golden Fleece. — Another of the world- 
famous stories of prehistoric Greece is the tale of the Argonau'tic 
Expedition. Ja'son was the son of a king in Thessaly whose 
brother had deposed him and driven him from the land. When 
Jason grew to manhood he went to the court of the reigning king, 
his uncle, who pretended to receive him kindly and invited him to 
a banquet. As the bards and musicians were reciting the brave 
deeds of the olden time they included the story of the golden 
fleece. 

Phryxus and his sister Hel'le, they said, had been presented by 
the god of the sea with a winged, golden-fleeced ram that they 
might fly to Colchis (kol'kis) across the Black Sea, to escape the 
cruelties of a stepmother. As they were flying above a strait on their 
way Helle became dizzy and fell into the water and was drowned. 
The strait was afterward called the Hellespont after her name. 
Phryxus continued his flight and reached Colchis in safety. Out 
of gratitude he then sacrificed the ram to the god who had given 
it to him, and hanging the golden fleece on a tree, placed a dragon 
to guard it day and night. 

Jason was moved by this story, and his wily uncle, the king, 
remarked that while such a treasure should be brought back to 
Greece, there was no one to send for it, as the young men of that 
generation were not brave like those of olden times. The craft 
of the king had its effect. Jason sprang to his feet and declared 
that he would go for the golden fleece. The king was highly 
pleased, for he believed that his nephew would never return. 

With about fifty companions, some of them renowned men of 
Greece, Jason set out in the ship Ar^o. The expedition was there- 
fore called the Argonautic Expedition. Jason succeeded in bring- 
ing back the golden fleece to his native land. 

This story is supposed to symbolize the beginnings of Greek 
commerce with the Orient, and the golden fleece was the rich 
treasures brought from the valley of the Euphrates. 

58. The Trojan War (about iioo r.c). — The stories of the 
demigods and heroes above related, and hundreds of others, were 



Greek Religion 71 

pure fable. But modern research has estabhshed the fact of a 
Trojan War, though there is a great deal of fable mixed with the 
story. 

Troy was a city across the .^gean Sea on the coast of Asia 
Minor, near the entrance of the Hellespont. According to the 
story of this world-renowned war, Priam was the king of Troy. 
He had a son named Paris. The king of Sparta was Menela'us, 
whose wife Helen was the most beautiful woman of her time. 

On making a visit to Sparta, Paris was attracted by the charms 
of Queen Helen, and induced her, in the absence of her husband, 
to fly with him to Troy. Menelaus, on his return, finding what his 
guest had done, swore vengeance on the house and city of Priam. 
He called together the kings and heroes of Greece, and they built 
a great fleet of more than a thousand ships. 

Among the celebrated heroes of this war were Agamem'non, 
brother of Menelaus and leader of the expedition ; Xestor, the 
wise counselor ; Ulys'ses or Odysseus (o-dis'us), the crafty ; Ajax, 
a man with the courage and strength of a giant ; and above all, 
Achilles (a-kil'ez), the most renowned of all the Greek warriors. 
For nine years the Greeks besieged the city without success. 

The Greeks finally captured Troy by means of a trick. They 
made a great wooden horse and, leaving it before the walls of the 
city, pretended to sail away. Within the horse were concealed 
a hundred Greek warriors. The Trojans drew the horse within 
the walls, and at night the Greeks emerged, opened the city 
gates, and admitted the Greek army. The city was soon de- 
stroyed and the long war was over. The last part of this war is 
described in Homer's Il'iad, the greatest epic poem in the Greek 
language. 

III. Greek Religion 

59. Dwelling Place of the Gods. — The Greeks, like all other 
peoples, ancient or modern, were religious. Religion has been 
an important factor in the building up of all civilizations. Where 
man has not the true religion he will build up a fanciful one from 



72 Ancient Greece 

his imagination. He will create gods and goddesses from his own 
mind and endow them with immortality and superhuman powers. 
Connected with such a religion is a system of myths, or stories 
about the gods and legendary heroes. The mythology of the 
Greeks is elaborate, beautiful, and attractive. 

Mt. Olympus in northern Greece, rising grandly from the 
Thessa'lian plain, was the dwelling place of the gods. Here 
among the clouds, far from the haunts of men, they sipped the 
nectar and ate the celestial ambrosia. Here they gathered in 
grave council, discussed the affairs of men, and determined 
the destinies of the nations, often disputing and quarreling with 
one another. The Greek gods were immortal. They could not 
die, but they were subject to suffering and they had the passions 
and shortcomings of men. 

The stories of the gods, attractive in themselves, are still more 
attractive when one remembers that they symbolize phenomena 
in nature.^ 

60. The Great Gods. — The greatest of the gods, the father of 
gods and men and the king of heaven, was Zeus or Jupiter (the 
Roman name). It was he who hurled the thunderbolt and sent 
the forked lightning. He was represented as a man of gigantic 
size with curling hair and beard. Homer tells us that the move- 
ment of his eyebrows would shake Olympus to its base. The 
Greeks made many statues of this deity ; the most celebrated was 
the colossal figure by Phid'ias at Olympia. 

Jupiter divided the control of the universe with his brothers 
Neptune and Pluto.- Neptune, or Greek Poseidon (po-si'don) 
became the god of the sea. He dwelt in the caverns of the mighty 
deep and he could cause earthquakes and storms at his will. He 
was also god of lakes, rivers, and fountains, which he intrusted to 
the care of servants, hoary river gods or youths and maidens who 
lived beneath the waters, invisible to human eyes. Pluto was the 

1 Many of these stories with their allegorical meaning can be found in Guerber's 
Myths of Greece and Rome. 

2 The Roman names are used because better known to English readers. 



Greek Religion 



73 



god of the lower regions, called Hades (ha'dez), the abode of the 
dead. 

Ceres (se'rez ; Greek Deme'ter) was the goddess of agriculture 
and civilization, and her daughter Proser'pina was the goddess nf 
vegetation. Proserpina 
became the wife of 
Pluto ; but when she 
left the earth for the 
dismal regions below 
all vegetation died. 
Then all the people of 
the world prayed to 
Jupiter that she might 
return. He agreed that 
she should spend half 
of each 3^ear on the 
earth and the other 
half with her husband. 
W'hile she is in the 
underworld the earth 
is wrapped in snow and 
ice, and when she re- 
turns the earth is 
blessed with grain and 
fruit and flowers And 
thus goes on forever 
the changing of the 
seasons, the succession 
of winter and summer. 

6i. Other Gods. — 
There were many hun- 
dreds of Greek gods 
and goddesses, only a few of whom can be named here. Apollo, 
known by the Greeks as Phoebus or He'lios, represented the sun 
and was the most glorious of all the gods. He was also the god 

EL. M. T. — 6 



^^^^kV^^^^^^a* 'i^^^^^^^^l 


^^H^^R 4 


A. ^^^H 


^^^^Uv^' "* ' - ^ 


■ 




1 


^P^ni 



.\i:i'"n"\i 

A colossal marble statue found in Me'los and now 

in the National Museum at .-Vthens. The trident 

in his right hand is the emblem of the sea god 



74 



Ancient Greece 



of music, of medicine, of poetry, and of the fine arts. Every day i 

Apollo drove across the sky behind his fiery steeds, guiding the I 

sun in its course. r 

Dian'a (called also Cyn'thia, Phoe'be, or Ar'temis) was the 

goddess of the moon and was Apollo's twin sister. At evening' 

when the sun went down Diana 
drove her milk-white steeds 
across the sky. She was also 
the goddess of the chase and is 
pictured as a robust maiden in 
a hunting skirt and bearing bow 
and quiver. The temple of 
Diana at Eph'esus was one of 
the Seven Wonders of the an- 
cient World.^ 

Venus (Greek Aphrodi'te) 
was the goddess of love and 
beauty and marriage. One 
story of her origin was that she 
had sprung from the foam of 
the sea, where she was cradled 
by the ocean nymphs in a great 
blue wave and later wafted to 
shore by Zeph'yrus, the god of 
the west wind. Venus had a 

little son called Cupid, a beautiful boy, plump and rosy, with 

gauzy wings and always bearing a bow and arrow. 




Dl.\XA Ol' X'ersaxlles 
A marble statue now in the Louvre. 



iThe other six were the pyramids of Egypt (sec. 24), the walls and hanging 
gardens of Babylon (sec. 35), the statue of Zeus by Phidias (sec. 60), a great 
Mausole'um at Halicarnassus, a great statue or Colossus at Rhodes, and the Pharos 
or lighthouse at Alexandria. The Mausoleum was the tomb of King Mauso'lus 
(died 353 B.C.), built by his widow ; the name was afterward given to any magnifi- 
cent tomb. The Colossus of Rhodes was a bronze statue of the sun-god Apollo, 
over 100 feet high, erected B.C. 292-280. The Pharos was an elaborate tower of 
white marble built 270 B.C. at a cost equal to about a million dollars. Of all the 
Seven Wonders, only the pyramids have endured to modern times. 



Panhellenic Interests 75 

The god of war was Mars, the Greek Ares (a'rez). He was 
represented as a powerful athlete in shining armor with spear 
and helmet. He delighted in the noise and din of battle. 

Minerva (Greek Athe'na) was the most popular goddess in 
Greece. She had brought the olive tree to Greece, and her name 
was given to Athens. She was the goddess of wisdom, and even 
Jupiter and Mars often heeded her wise counsel. 

IV. P.\NHELLENIC INTERESTS ^ 

62. The Delphian Oracle. — The various Greek nations, as we 
have noticed, though never a united people, professed a common 
descent, spoke the same language, and worshiped the same gods. 
There were also other ties which bound them together. One of 
these was the oracle at Delphi. 

Delphi was a little city of Phocis in Central Greece, on the 
southern slope of Mt. Pamas'sus. Here was built about the sixth 
century B.C. an imposing temple to Apollo, who had become the 
advising deity of the Greek people. Here was the shrine of 
Apollo with its famous oracle, which rendered this spot the most 
popular religious center in all Greece. From a deep fissure in a 
great rock under a shaggy clifif of Parnassus came a strange odor, 
supposed to be the breath of Apollo. The priestess inhaling this 
odor would utter messages from the god. These, if they dealt 
with the future, were generally obscure or ambiguous and ad- 
mitted of various interpretations (Side Talk, page 58). For many 
hundreds of 5'ears the Greeks believed in the divine origin of 
these prophecies. Seldom would they embark on any important 
expedition without first consulting the oracle of Delphi. There 
were several other oracles in Greece, but none of them approached 
that of Delphi in importance. 

63. The Olympian Gaines. — The Greeks loved sports, and 
there were four places in which they gathered for great national 

' By PanhcUcn'ic is meant that which i>ertains to all Ilcllas. Pan is the Greek 
word for all. 



76 



Ancient Greece 



games. One of these, Olympia, is known to all readers of Greek 
history. The others are scarcely remembered. Olympia was in 
Elis, the western part of the Peloponnesus, and the playground 
was under the shadow of a lofty wooded hill called Mt. Cronus, 
near the bank of the Alpheus River, the same that Hercules had 
turned through the Augean stables. 

Once in four years, a few weeks after midsummer, great numbers 
of Greeks from all parts of the land, from the shores of the Mediter- 
ranean and the islands of the sea, gathered for this festival. It 

was a religious festival, held in 
honor of Zeus, the chief of the 
gods. The main feature was 
the physical contests, running, 
jumping, casting the javelin and 
the discus, wrestling, boxing, 
and in the later period, horse 
racing and chariot racing. Only 
young men of good morals and 
sound bodies were permitted to 
enter the contests. The prize 
for victory was only a crown of 
wild olive leaves, but it was a 
badge of honor as well as of skill 
and was highly prized. A victor 
was lavishly entertained, and his 
journey homeward was like a 
triumphal procession. 

In addition to the physical 
contests there were many other 
expressions of gladness at Olym- 
pia. Here came the artist with 
his pictures and the poet to re- 
cite his verses. The days flitted 




" Discob'olus " OF Myron 



Marble copy of a famous bronze statue 
made by the Greek sculptor Myron. 
" Discobolus " means " discus thrower." 



by with dance and song, and when the people returned to their 
homes their feeling of brotherhood was greatly strengthened. 



Panhellenic Interests 77 

It is not known when these Olympian festivals began, but the 
first recorded was in 776 B.C. From this date the Greeks reckoned 
time as we reckon it from the birth of Christ.^ 

Questions and Topics. — I. Describe the soil and climate of Greece. 
Tell what you know about the Minoan civilization. What traditions 
had the Greeks of their own origin ? What was their state of civiliza- 
tion when they first came to Greece? In what respect was Greek life 
afifected by their learning to till the soil? In which of the five stages of 
economic progress were the Greeks when they came from the north 
(sec. 4) ? What were the basal causes of the high standard of civilization 
later built up by the Greeks? What did the Phoenicians do for Greek 
progress? What would be the state of our civilization without an 
alphabet? Name and point out on the map the most important 
divisions of Greece. Why were the Greeks never a united people? 

II. What importance can we attach to the Grecian mj^ths? Why 
are the founders of our early American colonies historical and not 
mythical characters? What does the story of Jason and the Golden 
Fleece symbolize in Greek history? Write a short account of the 
Trojan War. 

III. What effect had religion and mythology on Greek civilization? 
Why are all peoples in history religious? Name a few of the Greek 
gods and what they stood for. 

IV. Describe the oracle of Delphi ; the Olympian games. What 
were the advantages of the Olympian games? How did the Greeks 
reckon time? What was the purpose in reviving the Olympian con- 
tests in recent times? 

For Further Reading. — Bury, History of Greece. Botsford, History 
of Greece. Richardson, Vacation Days in Greece. Mahaffy, Rambles 
and Studies in Greece. IMorey, Outlines of Greek History. .\ny good 
book on Greek mythology. Selections from Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. 

1 The modern revival of the OljTnpian games began in iSg6. In that year they 
were held in Athens, Greece, the contestants coming from almost every part of the 
civiUzed world. In i goo the meeting place was Paris; in 1904 it was St. Louis, 
Missouri; in 1908, London; and in 1912, Stockholm, Sweden. In 1016. during the 
World War, the games were not held; for 1920, .\ntwcrp, Belgium, was selected as 
the meeting place. 



CHAPTER V 
SPARTA AND ATHENS; GREEK COLONIZATION 

I. Sparta 

64. The Three Classes. — Any one who has a strong, athletic 
body and who can suffer hardships without complaining, is often 
called a " Spartan." The word has come down to us from ancient 
Greece and from the most renowned people of Greece except the 
Athe'nians, to be noticed later. The mythical founder of Sparta 
was Lacedse'mon, whose wife's name was Sparta. The town was 
known by both names. Sparta, or Lacedaemon, was a small city 
on the banks of the little river Euro'tas, which winds among the 
mountains of Laconia. Plere and there along the river lies a 
green valley, and in one of these valleys, about eighteen miles 
long and four or five miles wide, was Sparta. The people of this 
famous little city and of the surrounding country were divided 
into three classes : 

1. The Spartans proper, who had complete control of the 
government. The Spartans capable of bearing arms numbered 
only about 6000 at any one time. 

2. The Perioe'ci (those who live around), the middle class. 
They occupied a hundred villages scattered among the mountains. 
They were merchants, manufacturers, and sailors, and were sub- 
ject to the Spartans, to whom they paid heavy tribute. 

3. The Hel'ois, a class of serfs. They tilled the soil and their 
Spartan masters took almost all of their crops. The Helots out- 
numbered the Spartans ten to one but were not permitted to keep 
arms and were powerless against their cruel masters. On several 
occasions the Helots and Perioeci rose against the Spartans, but 
were always put down and cruelly punished for their rebellion. 

78 



Sparta 



79 




Foot Race 

From a Grecian vase painting. The figures are 
painted in black on a red ground. 



65. The Spartan Warrior. — The Spartan was a soldier and 
only a soldier. His Helots and his slaves earned his bread and 
did all his work. The state claimed all his time ; when not at 
war he drilled and prepared for war. He exercised himself by 
running, leaping, throwing the javelin, and wielding his arms. 
Every day he exercised all his muscles. The Spartans sought 
physical perfection 
and attained it as no 
other people ever did. 
The Spartan remained 
in training to the age 
of sixt}', and he could 
not leave his country 
without permission 
from the state. One 
way Sparta had of 
keeping its people at 
home was to make 
money of iron. The coins were so large and heavy that no one 
could afford to travel. 

The Spartans were taught never to turn their backs to the 
enemy in battle. They spoke in the most terse, direct manner, 
and to this day we speak of direct, short sentences as " laconic," 
from Laconia, the land of which Sparta was the capital. Every 
Spartan citizen had a wife (the law forced him to marry), but he 
did not live at home. He ate and slept with his comrades, visit- 
ing his family only occasionall}'. The women were free to do as 
they liked in managing the household. 

When the Spartans went into battle, they formed themselves 
into a solid mass called a phalanx. They stood shoulder to 
shoulder in lines eight deep or more. The king would sacrifice 
a goat and begin to sing a war song. The soldiers would then 
join in singing, the flute player would begin his piping, and the 
mass of men, keeping step with the music, would rush fiercely 
upon the enemy. Every soldier had been trained from childhood 



8o Ancient Greece 

and every one was an athlete. Seldom were the Spartans de- 
feated in battle. 

66. The Spartan Boy and Girl. — When a child was bom in 
Sparta it was taken before a council of old men. If they found 
it imperfect in body it was exposed in a mountain glen to die. 
If found perfect, it was given back to its mother, who kept it 
till it was seven years of age. 

At the age of seven a boy was taken from his mother and put, 
along with other boys, under the training of an army officer. 
Here they were drilled in everything that would make them hardy 
warriors.. They went barefoot winter and summer, bathed in 
the cold Eurotas, and slept on reeds gathered from the river 
bank. Sometimes they were scourged that they might become 
accustomed to enduring pain, and a true Spartan lad would die 
under the lash rather than reveal his suffering by word or look. 

All this hard training was for the purpose of making the most 
efficient soldiers. As a soldier was sometimes obliged to forage, 
the Spartan boy was taught to steal. If caught he was punished, 
not for stealing, but for being so stupid as to be caught. The 
story is well known of the Spartan boy who had stolen a young 
fox which he concealed under his cloak : the animal gnawed out 
his vitals, but the boy did not betray himself by look or groan. 

Spartan girls also were taken from their homes and trained by 
the state. They practiced running, throwing the javelin and 
the discus, and they became strong and robust. A poet says that 
Spartan girls at play were " like colts with flowing manes making 
the dust fly about them." 

The excessive physical training made Sparta for a long time 
the strongest military power in Greece. It fostered a spirit of 
patriotism which became the strongest passion among the people. 
This is illustrated by the story of the mother who hastened to 
ask the soldiers returning from a campaign what was the result 
of the battle. She was infornied that all her five sons had perished. 
" This is not what I wish to know," she exclaimed ; " did Sparta 
win? " " Yes." " Then let us give thanks to the gods." 




In the Agora or IMarket Place, Athens 



Life in Athens 8i 

II. Life in Athens 

67. Attica and its Capital. — Attica is a small triangular 
peninsula of Central Greece jutting southeastward into the i4igean 
Sea. The land is rugged and mountainous, the soil is stony and 
thin. In the northeast, overlooking the famous battleground of 
Mar'athon, rises Mt. Pentel'icus, noted for its white marble. 
Not far from this mountain on the south is the Hymet'tus range, 
which was known far and near for its honeybees. 

Among the hills and o\'er the narrow plains of Attica were 
scattered many villages, one of which grew into a notable city, 
the most renowned for art and culture in all the ancient world. 
The mythical founder of the city was Cecrops (sec. 54), but the 
people, believing that the goddess Athena had brought them the 
olive tree, which flourished in Attica, called the city Athens in 
her honor. All that was best in Greek civilization centered in 
this wonderful city. On a massive, barren rock a few miles from 
the sea, the old town of Athens was built. Later this rock was 
called the Acrop'olis (citadel) and the great majority of the people 
dwelt on the surrounding plain. ^ 

68. Rise of Democracy. — We are justly proud of our great 
democracy the United States. The word democracy is from two 
Greek words {demos, people, and kratos, power), and means govern- 
ment by the people. We are indebted for the principles of de- 
mocracy to the ancient Hebrews (sec. 42) and the Greeks, es- 
pecially the Athenians. 

At first and probably for many centuries Athens was a king- 
dom ; but we know little about this period, for the Greeks had 

' The agora, pictured on the opposite page, was a public square in .\thens planted 
here and there with plane trees, and surrounded by temples, shops, and covered 
porticoes. In these covered promenades, whose inner walls were decorated with 
vivid frescoes, met the leading men of the city to discuss the news of the day. 
Hucksters selling food and various small wares squatted on the pavement or sat in 
little booths, adding their cries to the continuous din. Interested spectators and 
idlers watched the mountebanks perform. Save for a few tradeswomen, no .\thenian 
lady was to be seen; but with the citizens in their flowing robes mingled visitors 
and soldiery. 



82 Ancient Greece 

not yet learned to write their own history, and most of their 
legends of the kings are no doubt myths. About the beginning 
of the historic period (750 B.C.) the ruling officials came to be 
called archons (ar'konz). The word archon means ruler, and from 
it we get our words monarch, patriarch, and the like. The archons 
were all nobles and their government of the peasants was harsh 
and tyrannical. The common people of Athens chafed under 
the oppressive rule of the nobles. Those who were rich enough 
to afford armor had been admitted into the phalanx for warfare 
and soon they demanded a share in the government also. This 
in time was granted. An assembly called the Eccle'sia was 
formed and every soldier who was rich enough to equip himself 
in armor was a member of it. This assembly came to have a 
great deal of power in the government. 

The poorer people had no part in the government and they 
were discontented. One cause of their discontent lay in the fact 
that the laws were not written and those in authority could twist 
and interpret them as they chose. 

A landlord would lay claim to a field whether he Tiad a right 
to it or not. He would set up a boundary stone as a sign that 
the land and all the people on it belonged to him. The people 
were forced to pay him rent and often they were unable to do so. 
The ground was poor and they had nothing but sharpened sticks 
with which to till the soil. When they failed to pay they were 
sold into slavery by their cruel master. 

69. Solon, the Lawgiver. — A lawgiver was certainly needed 
and one soon arose. His name was Solon. He was the greatest 
lawgiver Greece ever produced, and one of the most renowned in 
history. 

Solon was chosen archon in the year 594 b.c. and was intrusted 
with making over the laws of the country. Though himself a 
rich man, he was a friend of the poor, and one of the first things 
he did was to order the boundary stones in Attica to be re- 
moved and all those who had been sold into slavery for debt to 
be released. 



Life in Athens 83 

Some of the most important of Solon's reforms are the following : 

1. The sale of one's children or kinswomen into slavery was 
forbidden. 

2. Peasants were made proprietors of the lands they cultivated, 
and a limit was set on the amount of land any one could hold. 

3. The citizens were grouped into four classes according to 
their incomes, and even the lowest class was given a voice in the 
government. 

4. Every father was obliged to teach his son a trade. 

It was Solon who laid the foundations of true democracy in 
Athens. After doing his great work he left Athens and traveled 
in foreign lands for ten j^ears (Side Talk, page 58). His laws 
were not fully enforced, but the Athenians never forgot their 
great lawgiver, and indeed his influence has been felt throughout 
all the ages down to our own times. 

70. How the Assembly and Courts Worked. — Solon had ad- 
mitted the lower classes to the assembly, and it was now com- 
posed of all male citizens over twenty years of age. Thus Athens 
was a pure democracy. The assembly met two or three times a 
month, but of course not all the members attended.- The meet- 
ings were held in the open air, the members sitting on stone 
benches in the form of an amphitheater. After a brief religious 
service a herald would proclaim the business in a loud voice and 
then cry, " Who wishes to speak? " The members who desired 
to speak then mounted the platform and addressed their fellows. 
When all had finished a vote was taken by a show of hands. 

From among the members of the assembly above thirtj' years 
old several thousand men were chosen by lot for service as judges 
or jurymen. Each jury was large — perhaps 201 or 501 men, 
but sometimes more than 1000. There was no public prosecutor. 
Any citizen might accuse any other citizen. Both the accuser 
and the accused would speak to the jury, the time of each being 
marked by a water clock. In voting each jur>'man deposited 
a white or a black stone. If the accuser did not receive a certain 
number of votes, he was himself condemned. When two men 



84 Ancient Greece 

went to law each had the right to call the slaves of the other as 
witnesses, and the slaves were put to the torture in order to force 
them to tell what they knew. 

71. Daily Life of the Athenians. — We have noticed that in 
Sparta the men and children above seven years of age belonged 
to the state and did not spend much time in their homes, while 
the women kept the home and enjoyed the fullest freedom. 

In Athens the men enjoyed more freedom and the women less 
than in Sparta. The men lived in public. Their business was 
warfare and government, and their living was earned by the labor 
of slaves and of the poorer classes. They lived out of doors, 
often sleeping in the streets at night. During the day they could 
be found in the market place, at the gymnasium, in the army, 
or in the courts. They loved poetry and song, and often they 
gathered about some aspiring poet and listened to his verses, or 
to the great epics of Homer, which were passed down unwritten 
from generation to generation for hundreds of years. 

In later ages, when the works of the great authors were written, 
a studious man would spend much of his time in reading. Athens 
at one time was the greatest book center in the world and there 
was a section in the public market^plalce -.where books were sold. 
A book was a rolled scroll of papyrus, written by hand. Some 
books were very large, the stroll being 150 feet' or more in length. 
Such a book was very much more ■exjp:^nsive- than our books be- 
cause of the great labor required in making it. A reader would 
unroll the sheet at one end as he rolled it up at the other end. 

72. "Women and Children. — The well-to-do Athenian women 
were confined closely to their hemes,; where they directed their 
slaves and looked after the household. T^he "women had no place 
in society ; they received no visitors except their husbands and 
relatives. When guests were present for meals the women did 
not appear at the table. 

The women of poor families went to the public well for water 
or to the market place to make purchases, and in this way met 
their neighbors for a little chat. Other women sent their slaves 



Life in Athens 



8S 



on such errands and themselves remained in their homes. The 
poor women thus liad more freedom than the rich. 

When a child was born in Sparta a committee of old men de- 
cided whether it should live or not (sec. 66). In Athens it was 
the father of the little newcomer who decided whether to reject 
it or keep it. If he chose not to keep the child, it was exposed 
outside the house, where it died of hunger and neglect, unless 
some passer-by took it and raised it as a slave. Girls were more 
frequently rejected than boys. The rejection of an infant was 
far more frequent in Sparta than in Athens. 

73. The Boy and the Young Man. — If the child was accepted 
it was left in the care of its mother. A boy when seven years 
old was placed under the care of a ped'agogue, who was usually 
a slave. He taught the boy to obey and to cultivate good manners 
and had the right to beat him if necessary. Later the boy at- 
tended school and learned not many things, but a few things well. 
The pedagogue accompanied the boy to school and waited to 
return with him when the lessons were over. Athens had no 




Greek ScnooL Teacher, Pupil, and Pedagogue 

From an ancient Greek vase painting. The teacher is instructing the pupil from 
a parchment roll. Between them, hanging on the wall, is shown a lyre. 



86 Ancient Greece 

public schools. A teacher organized his own school and lived 
by the fees of his pupils. Most schools were in comfortable 
rooms, but some teachers sat and conducted their classes in the 
streets. The schoolroom had little furniture, perhaps only a 
stool for the teacher, a few benches for the boys, and statues of 
Apollo and the Muses — nine goddesses of song, poetry, arts, and 
sciences. 

The boy was taught reading, writing, grammar, and arithmetic. 
He was also taught to recite poetry, to sing in the chorus, and 
perhaps to play the flute and the lyre. Lastly, the Athenian 
boy attended the gymnasium, or perhaps a wrestling school where 
he was carefully drilled in bodily exercise. While in Sparta the 
sole object was to make good soldiers, in Athens the object was 
to make men well-rounded in both mind and body. We must 
admire the Athenian method more than the Spartan. 

The boy finished school usually before he was twenty, when he 
became a citizen. He could now come and go as he liked, except 
that he was expected to serve a few years in the army. If his 
country was not at war, this was not a very arduous task, nor 
did it take him far from home. 

A young man of means sufficient to enable him to live a life 
of leisure found much to entertain him. He would spend his 
days in contests with his fellows throwing the discus and the 
javelin, or in the more severe exercise of wrestling or boxing; 
or he would stroll about the Academy or Lyce'um, two noted 
places of amusement in Athens. Here he could witness or take 
part in many games, could dance to the music of the flute and the 
lyre, or, if more serious-minded, he could listen to the philosophers 
who often came to these resorts to expound their theories of life. 

Sometimes the young man would go with his companions on an 
extensive hunting tour far into the mountains and forests of Cen- 
tral Greece. Armed with a sling and a spear or javelin, wearing 
hat and boots (things not used in ordinary life), accompanied by 
a fierce Arcadian mountain dog or a Laconian foxhound, he would 
spend days or even weeks in the sport of the chase. 



Life in Athens 87 

74. Marriage. — The Athenian girl was kept in ignorance. 
She never attended school nor learned to read. Until the age 
of fifteen she remained in strict seclusion at home with her mother, 
aiding her in keeping the household and spinning fla.x. 

At the age of fifteen the girl was married. Most marriages 
took place in the winter months in the light of the moon. The 
father of a girl chose a husband for her without consulting her 
in the matter. It often happened that the young girl was married 
to a man whom she had never seen before the wedding day. 
Herodotus tells of one man who, having several daughters, per- 
mitted them to choose husbands for themselves, and he mentions 
it as a very unusual occurrence. 

The marriage festival was similar in many ways to that of 
Babylonia (sec. 37). It is possible that some of the customs were 
borrowed from the Orient. After a day of gay festivities with 
friends of both families, the bridegroom took his bride in a chariot 
drawn by oxen or horses and proceeded to his home. They were 
followed by a noisy crowd on foot playing fiutes and harps and 
singing songs. The crowd grew larger as the procession moved 
through the streets. In this procession the mother of the bride 
had a place of honor. She bore a torch lighted from the sacred 
fire of her own hearth. 

A Greek married because the law and his religion required him 
to do so. He did not make his wife a companion ; she was only 
his home-keeper and the mother of his children. The man was 
educated and well informed on all subjects ; the woman was 
ignorant and not companionable. One writer speaks of marriage 
as a necessary evil. With all our admiration for the ancient 
Greeks, we must agree that in their treatment of women and new- 
born infants they were barbarians — like other ancient peoples. 

75. Progress in Agriculture. — The Attic farmer lacked agri- 
cultural machinery. His plow in the earlier times was a forked 
tree trunk. Later it was made of parts fastened together with 
pegs and with an iron point. The plow was drawn by mules or 
oxen, the plowman guiding it by means of a handle. 



88 Ancient Greece 

The harvest time was made a season of festivity. The people 
indulged in all sorts of fun and frolic as they reaped their grain 
with sickles, bound it in sheaves, and carried it on their backs 
or in wooden carts to the threshing floor. The grain was threshed 
by the tramping of mules, oxen, or horses. It was then 
separated from the chaff by tossing it to the wind. 

The grain, wheat or barley, was ground between two heavy 
millstones, the upper one being turned on the lower one (which 
was immovable) by means of a handle. In the rural districts, 
however, where grain was used in small quantities, it was usually 
ground in hand mortars by slaves. 

In addition to the raising of grain the Greeks gave much at- 
tention to cultivating the vine and the olive and fig trees. 

There were many superstitions connected with rural life. One 
god or goddess watched over the growing grain, another caused the 
olive tree to bring forth its fruit, while still another had the care of 
the vine. Almost every movement the farmer made from the sow- 
ing of the grain to the gathering of his harvest had its religious mean- 
ing and was accompanied with some sort of religious ceremony. If 
the ground brought forth grain plentifully, it was Demeter that 
was to be thanked ; Diony'sus made the vine to bring forth grapes, 
and the goddess Athena, the most venerated of all, was ever 
vigilant in her protection of the precious olive tree. 

The food of the Greeks was not very different from that which 
we find on our own tables — wheat or barley bread, meat oc- 
casionally, fish and nuts ; but potatoes, tea, coffee, and bananas 
were unknown to them. The universal drink was wine. Oil 
and sometimes wine were used for softening bread. The Greeks 
did not sit at the table as we do ; they reclined on couches while 
taking their meals. 

76. Various Industries. — The great factories of our cities, 
driven by steam or electric power, were undreamed of by the 
ancients. In all countries man learned by a slow and laborious 
process to make the things he needed in addition to those which 
nature furnished ready to hand. 





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Facing i 



Greek Colonization 89 

A stroll through the streets of Athens in the classic period, 
400 or 500 B.C., would reveal many a busy workshop. It will be 
seen that craftsmen of the same craft often occupy the same 
street : the potters are numerous along one street, the masons and 
builders along another, while the jewelers predominate in another. 
The name of the street often designates the business which 
characterizes it, as the " street of the stonemasons." 

In the northwest part of the city we find the street of the 
potters. Here we see making all manner of vessels of clay, 
from the cheap and plain kitchen utensils to the highly artistic 
urns and vases, many of which still exist and are to be found in 
our museums. We find also the street occupied by the masons 
and builders. Here various classes of workmen are engaged. The 
stonecutter shapes and polishes stone or marble blocks ; a car- 
penter frames doors from timbers brought from the Attic forests ; 
while the roofers are preparing tiles. 

One street is devoted to the work of the millers and the bakers. 
The finished loaves and barley cakes, baked in large earthen 
ovens, are sold to the consumer at the market place or on the 
streets by regular bread sellers. Here is a street given to the 
cloth makers, the fullers, and the dyers. The weaving is done 
on hand looms, worked by men or women. The woven cloth, 
of wool or flax, after being fulled and dj^ed, goes to the garment 
cutters and is made into garments. 

The one garment generally worn by men and women is the 
tunic, called a chiton (ki'ton), a loose flowing robe, without 
sleeves, fastened about the shoulders with a clasp or button and 
falling gracefully over the body. 

III. Greek Colonization 

77. Swarming Across the Sea. — The Greeks were like a hive 
of bees. They outgrew their quarters and were obliged to swarm. 
Greece was not only a small country, it was also unfertile and even 
barren in many parts. It could not support a great population, 

EL. M. T. — 7 



90 Ancient Greece 

and the people naturally cast their eyes across the sea in many di- 
rections. There were fertile lands to allure them on the coasts of 
the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. Many of these places 
were sparsely peopled, and the enterprising Greeks made use of 
their opportunity. . Not only the Greeks of Greece but also those 
of western Asia Minor and the ^gean islands became great 
colonizers. 

Greek settlements were made in many lands. The northern 
coast of the JEgesin Sea and the shores of the Black Sea became 
dotted with the colonies of these enterprising people. They had 
a settlement in Egypt at the delta of the Nile ; they planted 
colonies in Cy'prus and on the neighboring southern coast of Asia 
Minor, in northern Africa, in southern Italy, southern France, and 
even in Spain. Colonizing by the Greeks was most active from the 
eighth to the sixth century B.C. 

78. How the Greeks Colonized. — When England colonized 
America she granted the colonies certain privileges, but did not 
grant them absolute freedom. Independence came only with the 
Revolution. The Greek colonies, on the other hand, were inde- 
pendent from the start, though each continued to cherish the 
friendship of the mother state. 

The Greeks did not colonize by going out singly or by families 
or in small groups. They went out in large numbers. When a 
colony was to be founded they consulted the oracle at Delphi, 
and if the answer was favorable they chose a " founder " who was 
to be their leader. They put to sea in as many vessels (sailboats 
furnished also with oars) as were required. When they reached 
the place of settlement the founder traced out an inclosure on 
which to build a city, constructed a sacred altar, and lighted the 
holy fire from embers brought from the home city. A city was 
founded in a single day, and everything was done with solemn 
religious ceremony. 

Many of the Greek colonies came to be of great importance, 
rivaling the leading cities of Greece. Only a few of these can 
be mentioned here. 



Greek Colonization 91 

We think of ancient Italy as the dwelling place of the Romans, 
but in fact there were many Greek towns in southern Italy before 
the Romans were heard of. So numerous were the Greek settle- 
ments that southern Italy was called Great Greece (Magna 
Grgecia). In plain view of the Italian shore lies the island of 
Sicily, in which also many Greek settlements were made. Among 
them was the city of Syr'acuse, founded by Corinthians about 
732 B.C. Syracuse was surrounded by a wall fourteen miles in 
length, and it became the mother of various other colonies. 

Had all the Greeks been capable of uniting under one govern- 
ment, they might have formed one of the great empires of an- 
tiquity. 

Side Talk 

The Legend of Euxenus. — This story was told in connection with 
the founding of the Greek colony in southern France, where Marseilles 
now stands : Eux'enus, a citizen of Greece, came to Gaul, as France 
was then called, in a merchant ship. A Gallic chief invited him to at- 
tend the marriage of his daughter, and Euxenus did so. A custom of 
this people was that the intended bride should choose a husband from 
among the guests invited to her wedding. She did this by entering the 
guest chamber bearing a cup, and the guest to whom she presented this 
cup was to be her husband. 

On this occasion the beautiful daughter of the chief entered the 
chamber, looked over the men, and offered the cup to Euxenus. This 
unpremeditated act was regarded as an inspiration from heaven. The 
marriage was celebrated and the chief granted his new son-in-law 
permission to found the colony of Massilia — the modern Marseilles. 

Questions and Topics. — I. Give the location of Sparta. Describe 
the classes of the people. How did the Spartan training of a warrior 
differ from modern military training? What can we find to admire in 
the education of a Spartan boy or girl? What were the defects in it? 

II. Describe Attica and locate Athens. What is democracy and 
the origin of the word? Who is the author of the expression, " making 
the world safe for democracy," and what is meant by it? Why were 
the Athenian people anxious for self-government? Who was Solon 
and what debt do we owe to him ? Describe the working of an Athenian 
assembly. How did an Athenian entertain himself? Compare the 



92 Ancient Greece 

treatment of infants in Athens and in Sparta. Which was preferable, the 
Spartan or the Athenian method of educating children? Why? How 
did a young Athenian spend his time ? Do we think it wise for a young 
man not to have a regular occupation? Describe a Greek marriage 
ceremony. Describe the raising and harvesting of grain. What were 
the religious beliefs in connection with agriculture? 

III. Why did the Greeks seek to build colonies? What was the 
important difference between the plan of Greek colonizing and that of 
England in colonizing America? Which was the wiser plan? Why? 
Why did the Greeks never build up an empire? What is an empire 
(sec. 2i)? 

For Further Reading. — Westermann, Story of the Ancient Nations. 
Bury, History of Greece. Bliimner, Home Life of the Ancient Greeks. 
Gulick, Life of the Ancient Greeks. Tucker, Life in Ancient Athens. Bots- 
ford, Soii-rce Book of Ancient History. Botsford, History of the Ancient 
World. Fling, Source Book of Greek History. Morey, Ancient Peoples. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE BRILLIANT AGE — LITERATURE, PHILOSOPHY, FINE 

ARTS 

I. Athens in the Age of Pericles 

79. The Greatest Greek Statesman. — No people can leave 
a great name in the world's record except through the leadership 
of men capable of taking the initiative in various lines of human 
thought and endeavor. The enduring achievements of Greece 
were due to its great leaders, a few of whom will be noticed in this 
chapter. 

The greatest of the Greek statesmen was Pericles (per'i-klez) 
of Athens. In 480 B.C. Athens passed through a dreadful bap- 
tism of blood and fire, during the wars with the Persians described 
in our next chapter. Pericles on entering public life found a great 
work to do in rebuilding and adorning the city. Though de- 
scended from a noble famih^ he took the side of the people against 
the aristocrats and through his transparent sincerity and candor 
soon won the confidence of all. Pericles was a many-sided man. 
He was not only a statesman, but he was an able commander who 
won battles on land and sea ; he was the greatest orator of his 
generation, and when he spoke before the assembly there was 
no escaping the irresistible charm of his eloquence. Moreover, 
he was a man of highest honor and integrity, and he gave his 
talents to his country with unselfish de\'otion. 

For forty years, to the time of his death in 429 B.C., Pericles, 
through his sheer force of character, his surpassing ability, and 
his magic eloquence, was master of Athens. As Thucydides, 
the historian of the period, informs us, " The Democracy existed 
in name; in reality it was the government of the first citizen." 

93 



94 



Ancient Greece 



Plutarch says, " He got all of Athens and all affairs pertaining to 
the Athenians into his own hands." 

Pericles was the chief builder of the Athenian Empire ; under 
his leadership Athens was mistress, for a time, of more than half 
of Greece. He adorned his city with magnificent buildings, un- 




Doric 



Ionic 
Orders of Greek Architecture 



Corinthian 



The three styles of architecture are distinguished by the form of the columns. 
The Dor'ic was the oldest and simplest, the column having a simple capital and 
no distinct base. The more slender lon'ic column rested on a base, and the cap- 
ital was adorned with a spiral roU- The Corinthian, latest of all and a modifica- 
tion of the Ionic, had a capital embellished with designs taken from the acanthus 
leaf. The modern " skyscrapers " may be compared with the plan of the Greek 
column, the lower stories and the top being decorated and the rest of the building 
left plain like the shaft of the column. 



surpassed in architectural beauty ; he gathered to himself and 
encouraged the leaders in art, sculpture, philosophy, and literature, 
and made his city the metropolis of culture. In the matter of 



Athens in the Age of Pericles 95 

government, Athens, under the superb leadership 'of Pericles. 
reached a high state of efficiency. 

80. Great Men of Athens. — Grandly supreme stands the 
city of Athens in its production of men who achieved immortal 
fame, and the golden age of Athens was the Age of Pericles. If 
we enlarge the " Age of Pericles " so as to cover one century 
beginning with the time when Pericles entered public life (469 
B.C.), we have a record so astonishing as almost to surpass belief. 
No other city can approach anywhere near the record of this 
wonderful Attic metropolis. In fact it has been asserted and is 
probably true that in all history there has never been another 
equal period of time in which the whole world produced as many 
geniuses of the first rank as Athens produced m the Age of Pericles. 
Here is a partial list : 

If one were to name a half dozen of the most famous historians 
of the world, in that short list there would be two Athenians of 
the Age of Pericles — Herodotus, the Father of History, and 
Thuc3'dides. Among the world's greatest dramatic poets three 
Athenians of this period must be named. These were ^schylus 
(es'ki-liis), Sophocles (sof'o-klez), and Euripides (u-rip'i-dez). 

The greatest of the Grecian sculptors, perhaps the greatest of 
all time, was Phidias, who worked under Pericles in beautifying 
the temples of the Acropolis. Praxiteles (prak-sit'e-lez), who 
ranks next to Phidias, flourished somewhat later, but still within 
the same century. 

In philosophy Greece presents three colossal figures, in Socrates 
(sok'ra-tez), Pla'to, and Aristotle (ar'is-tot-'l), none of whom has 
been surpassed in his chosen field during all the ages that have 
elapsed since that day. The same statement is true of Demos- 
thenes (de-mos'the-nez), who is considered the prince of the 
world's orators. 

All these were men of Athens and all lived within the century 
we have designated. There are still others among the Athenian 
immortals of the time. The above-named characters will be 
noticed more fully in the following pages. 



96 



Ancient Greece 



II. Greek Architecture and Sculpture 

8i. The Acropolis. — In the heart of Athens was a hill or small 
plateau called the Acropohs or citadel, measuring about iioo feet 

in length by 500 feet in 




Parthenon 

SCALE OF YARDS ^ vlwftfff/ /'~\^ 

ii5o 21)0 xfttfmH t-^ 



Plan of the Acropolis 



).K,,,,,.«;,-f"fc ,«,,/,«,,,,. width and rising about 

1 50 feet above the plain. 
On this hill were erected 
buildings of the greatest 
architectural beauty 
produced by the ancient 
world. 1 

Most famous among 
these was the Par'- 
thenon, a temple to 
Athena, the virgin god- 
dess after whom the city was named. This temple was erected 
under the direction of Pericles. It was built of Pentelic marble, 
in the Doric style of architecture. It was small in comparison 
with the great temples of Egypt and Babylonia ; but in classic 
taste and exquisite proportions it surpassed them all. The Par- 
thenon was a product of that wonderful outburst of creative genius 
which characterized the Age of Pericles. The ruined walls of the 
Parthenon still remain. For two thousand years the building was 
preserved in an almost perfect state, being used in turn as a pagan 
temple, a Christian church, and a Mohammedan mosque ; but in 



1 The view of the AcropoUs on the opposite page was taken from the plain on 
the east. Most of the modern Athens is on the west. The ruins of the Parthenon, 
as they appear to-day, can be seen on the summit. Some of the beautiful marble 
bas-reliefs and other sculptures that served as decorations for the temple were 
transported to the British Museum by Lord Elgin in 1801, and have thus been 
preserved. 

The group of columns on the plain near the center of the picture are the ruins of 
a temple to Zeus, built between 174 and 164 B.C. It was entirely of marble, and 
had 104 Corinthian columns more than 50 feet high. Of these, 48 stood in triple 
rows, with 56 in double rows at the sides. 




The Nike or Winged Victory of Samothrace 



Greek Architecture and Sculpture 97 

1687, when used as a Turkish powder magazine, it was partly 
blown to pieces during a bombardment by the Venetians. 

The city of Athens was adorned with many other artistic 
temples and monuments and statues, and the same was true of 
other Grecian cities.^ The houses in which the people lived, when 
they lived in houses at all (much of the time was spent in the open 
air), were low and small and packed together on the winding, 
ill-paved streets. The Egyptians, as we have noticed (sec. 23), 
lived in poor houses in order to build fine stone houses for their 
mummies. The Greeks, on the other hand, spent their extra 
money in erecting great temples and monuments in which all the 
people took a personal pride. No other people in history were as 
a whole so artistic and so classic in their art as the Athenians. 
By classic we mean of line artistic taste, with a true sense of pro- 
portion, simplicity, and grace, and a contempt for all that is 
tawdry and bombastic. 

82. The Great Sculptors. — Phidias produced many sculptures, 
but is especially known as the decorator of the wonderful temple 
of the Parthenon. Around the walls and cornices were groups 
of gods and heroes exquisitely wrought in gold and ivory and 
marble. There were figures of horses and chariots, soldiers, 
beautiful women, and many other figures together producing in 
the beholder a sense of beauty and unsurpassed splendor. In 
the temple, most wonderful of all, was the colossal statue of 
Athena (Minerva), standing 39 feet in height and made of gold 
and ivory. 

' The famous marble statue of Nike (ni'ke), the goddess of -vnctory, shown on 
the oi)positc page, was erected on the island of Sam'othracein the northern part of 
the ^gean Sea, to commemorate a naval victory in one of the wars between suc- 
cessors of Alexander the (Jreat (sec. 115). She is represented as standing on a 
pedestal in the form of the prow of a tri'rcmc, l)lowing victorious strains on a trum- 
pet which she held in her right hand. The statue found in iS6s. and the marble prow 
discovered later, are now in the Louvre, Paris. R. B. Richardson, in his History oj 
Greek Srulpliirr, says of the Nike: " .She is without head or arms. l)Ut so grane' is 
her attitude that we hardly miss them. The onward rush whii h she sha-^cs with 
the rushing trireme makes her one of the finest, one might almost say, he very 
finest, of all Greek sculptures." 



98 



Ancient Greece 




Porch or Maidens Attached to the Erechtheum (gr-ek-the'um) 

This building, on the Acropolis (plan, page g6) was, next to the Parthenon, the most 
important building of the great age of Greek sculpture. The Maidens stand four 
on the front and one on each end supporting with their heads the top of the por- 
tico. This is the best example of using human forms in place of columns 

The masterpiece of Phidias, however, was his colossal sitting 
statue of Zeus, in the temple of Olympia. 

Praxiteles, who ranks second only to this Athenian master, 
left the world some beautiful pieces of sculpture, most of which 
have perished. Other great sculptors there were, but some of 
the best work which has come down to us is by unknown hands. 
The most famous of the statues by unknown sculptors is the Venus 
of Milo (me'lo), which was unearthed in 1820 on the island of 
Milo or Melos and is now in the Louvre in Paris. Others are 
shown on pages 73, 74. 

Greek sculptures and temples were embellished by the use of 
bright colors. 



Greek Literature 99 

III. Greek Literature 

83. Homer. — The greatest of the Greek poets was Homer. 
He belonged to the early period, perhaps 1000 B.C., though the 
exact time of his life cannot be determined. His birthplace is 
unknown and seven different cities contended for the honor. It 
is said that he was blind. The greatest of the Homeric (ho-mer'ik) 
poems is the Iliad, which describes the siege of Troy, and especially 
the wrath of Achilles (sec. 58). 

The Iliad is an epic poem of wonderful power and beauty. 
Various critics have attempted to show that this great poem could 
not have been the work of one man, but the unity of the poem 
and the sameness of style throughout seem to indicate that it 
is the work of a single hand. The whole poem, whether it treats 
of the most ordinary actions of life, or of the heroic deeds of gods 
and heroes, is stately and grand and never monotonous. 

Another great epic said to have been the work of Homer is the 
Od'yssey, which relates the adventures of Ulj^sses on his return 
from the Trojan War. 

These poems are said to have been learned and handed down 
from one generation to another for several hundred years before 
they were put into written form. 

84. Sappho and Pindar. — The two most celebrated lyric poets 
were Sappho (saf'o), who flourished in 600 B.C., and Pindar, who 
was born in 522 B.C. The tastes of the people had changed, and 
lyric poetry became more popular than the epic. Lyric poetry 
is that which is suitable for song with the accompaniment of the 
lyre, ^ odes, love songs, and the like. 

Sappho was born in the city of Mytile'ne on the island of 
Lesbos. The Greeks esteemed her next to Homer, and though 
only a few precious fragments of her poetry have been preserved, 
there is reason to believe that she was the greatest woman poet 
that ever lived. The marvelous beauty and tenderness of her 
verse, the exquisite harmony and subtle charm, have never been 
surpassed. 



loo Ancient Greece 

Pindar was a native of Thebes in Boeotia. He lived through 
the Persian Wars and far into the time of Pericles. His odes were 
for the most part written in honor of the Olympian games. These 
games, it must be remembered, had a religious meaning, and the 
odes of Pindar were pervaded with a deep religious feeling. Like 
the songs of Sappho, the poems of Pindar are faultless in form. 
It has been said that his poems show as subtle and as successful 
an art as is known in literature. 

85. The Theater of Dionysus. — The Greeks were fond of the 
theater, and their plays usually had a religious meaning. There 
was one great theater in Athens, on the eastern slope of the 
Acropolis, the spacious theater of Dionysus, the wine-god, in 
whose honor two great festivals were held each year. The 
auditorium was a vast amphitheater in the open air, seating 
30,000 people. The stone seats, rising tier upon tier, faced a 
central open space called the orchestra, and back of this was the 
stage. 

Here people gathered in great numbers day after day and saw 
the sat'yrs, clothed in goatskins, singing their goat songs and 
dancing around the altar dedicated to the god of wine. The 
dancing group, called the chorus, was composed of young men 
and boys of the noble families, long trained for this purpose. 
Later the play on the stage was introduced by Thespis, as tra- 
dition informs us, and we still use the word Thespian to designate 
the drama. 

Some of the plays were jovial and were called comedies, from a 
Greek word meaning a joyful festivity. Others presented the 
serious and often fatal aspects of life. These were called tragedies 
from the Greek word tragos, a goat, because in the early period 
a goat was sacrificed in the plays. The first presentation of the 
dramas of the great poets was usually in this famous theater of 
Dionysus. 

86. Three Great Dramatists. — With the Greek drama three 
great names are always associated — ^Eschylus, Sophocles, and 
Euripides. All of these authors lived in the Age of Pericles, all 



Greek Literature 



TOT 




Modern I'roductiox of a Play of Euripides 

The chorus in the old Greek, play was a company of singers who both took part in 
the action and served as interpreters of it to the audience. They are represented 
in the picture by the groups in dark robes standing in the circular space of the 
orchestra around the altar The part of the chorus gradually decreased in impor- 
tance as the number of actors was increased. The stage or scene was always very 
simple in structure. The picture is from The Trojan Women, as presented in the 
Stadium at the College of the City of New York in igi5. 



were Athenians, and together they raised the dramatic art to a 
high degree of perfection. 

i^sch\'lus (525-456 B.C.) is known as the Father of Greek 
Traged}'. He had been a soldier and had fought at Marathon, 
at Saramis, and at Platse'a, three great victories of the Greeks 
in the Persian \\^ars. In his tragedy The Persians, the author 
depicts his conception of the effect of the news of the battle of 
Salamis on the Persian court. The best-known and probably 
the greatest of his tragedies that has been preser^-ed is Prome- 
theus Bound, describing with much vividness and power the 
sufferings of that hero while chained to the rock (sec. 56). 

Sophocles, the second of this remarkable triumvirate, was the 



I02 Ancient Greece 

son of wealthy parents. He was carefully trained in music and 
poetry. At the age of twenty-five, in a contest of the dramatists, 
Sophocles won first prize. It is said that yEschylus, who had 
been the master of the Greek drama for thirty years, was so 
chagrined at his defeat that he left Athens and went to live in 
Sicily. The characters of Sophocles were less heroic and more 
human than those of /Eschylus. One of his female characters, 
the dutiful Antigone (an-tig'o-ne), is pronounced as nearly perfect 
as any to be found in literature. 

Euripides was sixteen years younger than Sophocles, and forty- 
five years younger than ^schylus. Plutarch pronounces him the 
most tragic of poets. He depicted the life of the lower classes 
of the people. Eighteen of his plays still exist, while only seven 
of the plays of Sophocles have come down to us. 

87. The Great Historians. — The two most renowned his- 
torians of Greece were Herodotus and Thucydides, both of whom 
flourished during the same brilliant age in Athenian history, the 
Age of Pericles. 

Herodotus (484-425 B.C.) is called the Father of History, al- 
though there were many lesser writers of history before him. 
He was the first to write an extensive history which has come 
down to us. His great life work was his history of the Persian 
Wars. Most of our detailed knowledge of Marathon and Salamis 
comes from this interesting and painstaking writer. 

Herodotus was born in Asia Minor, but became a resident of 
Athens. He traveled in many lands — Egypt, Asia Minor, 
Babylonia, and Italy — and wrote interesting accounts of them. 
He not only wrote down what he observed about the people among 
whom he traveled, but also included many tales and legends that 
were related to him. 

Thucydides was younger than Herodotus by about thirteen 
years. The story is told that Thucydides, when a boy in his 
teens, was moved to tears while hearing Herodotus recite his 
history to an admiring crowd. It is agreed that Thucydides was 
a far more accurate and critical historian than Herodotus. He 



Greek Literature 103 

was exceedingly careful to be accurate in all he wrote. His great 
work is the history of the Peloponnesian (pel-o-po-ne'shan) War, 
to be described in our next chapter. 

Xenophon (zen'o-phon) may be ranked third among the Greek 
historians, though he can hardly be classed with Herodotus and 
Thucydides. He was bom in 445 B.C. and lived to be ninety 
years of age. He wrote some important historic works. The 
one best known is his Anab'asis, an account of the expedition of 
a Greek army in Asia Minor. 

It was a source of no little pride to Xenophon that in his younger 
days he had been a disciple of the great philosopher Socrates. 
It is related that the philosopher, attracted by the comely ap- 
pearance of the young man, wished to admit him into his circle 
of learners. Meeting him one day in a narrow passage, he placed 
his staff across the path and stopped him, and asked, " Where 
are those things to be purchased which are necessary to human 
life? " Xenophon was at a loss for a reply, and the philosopher 
asked, " Where are good and honest men to be found? " The 
boy still hesitated, and Socrates added, " Follow me and learn." 
From this time Xenophon is said to have been a faithful and de- 
voted pupil of Socrates. 

88. Demosthenes. — In the olden times before the invention 
of printing, oratory was more of a fine art, and orators had more 
influence with the people than at present. With few books and 
no newspapers or magazines, the people were largely dependent 
on public speakers for their information. Greece was pre- 
eminently the nation of oratory, and the prince of Greek orators 
was Demosthenes (385-322 b.c). There are many stories of 
how this remarkable man struggled in his youth to overcome 
obstacles before he reached the goal of success. 

One contemporary writer says that Demosthenes spoke with 
pebbles in his mouth to cure himself of stammering. He practiced 
before a mirror to correct his facial expression. To accustom him- 
self to the tumult of a noisy audience, he practiced on the sea- 
shore where the waves were dashing against the rocks. In order 



I04 Ancient Greece 

to cultivate a clear style he copied and recopied many times the 
orations of the renowned men of the past, especially those scat- 
tered through the history of Thucydides. Such unwearied effort 
is sure to win success, and so it did in the case of Demosthenes. 
He became the greatest orator of his time if not of all time. To 
this day he is regarded in all lands as the peerless master of his 
art. 

Among the great orations of Demosthenes are the Philip' pics, 
so called because they were directed against Philip II, king of 
Macedonia. For fourteen years this ambitious monarch of the 
north was held at bay in his encroachments on Greek soil, and it 
was chiefly through the masterly efforts of Demosthenes. 

Athens rewarded her great son. The city voted him a crown 
of gold. But another noted orator disputed his right to it. The 
matter was decided by an oratorical contest. It was at this time 
that Demosthenes delivered his celebrated Oration on the Crown, 
and his victory was most decisive. 

IV. The Great Philosophers 

89. Socrates. — In studying the wonderful outburst of genius 
in Athens during the century of Pericles, we have noted some 
of the achievements of this little city in architecture and sculpture, 
in literature, oratory, and statesmanship. But her record in 
philosophy is probably the greatest of all. Among the thinkers 
of all time the names of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle must be 
placed in the first rank. 

First in point of time was Socrates (469-399 b.c). He was the 
son of poor parents, but being taken into the family of a rich man 
as tutor, he found ample opportunity for self-culture. Like 
nearly all the Greeks of his time he served in war and on one 
occasion he saved the life of his disciple Xenophon, the historian, 
by carrying him, wounded, back from the battle front. Above 
all things Socrates loved philosophy, the study of the causes and 
meaning of things. 



The Great Philosophers 



105 



Seeing that many people were misled by teachers of eloquence, 
called Sophists, Socrates set himself the task of correcting the 
public mind. All his teaching was oral, and he left no writings. 
He walked through the streets of Athens asking questions of 
groups of hearers, drawing them out by means of dialogue. This 
method of teaching is known as the Socrat'ic method. 




The Death of Socrates 

From a modern painting. Tlie philosopher is awaiting the cup of hemlock poison 
which is to bring about his death. With him are friends, including Plato and 

his pupil Crito. 

Socrates was a burly, ungainly looking man with a flat nose and 
massive forehead — the opposite of the Greek ideal of beauty. 
His maxim was " Know thyself." Without opposing the national 
religion, he taught the immortality of the soul and the e.xistence 
of one supreme God who created and sustains the universe. 
He made many enemies and they caused his arrest and trial on 
the charge of corrupting the youth by leading them into false 
beliefs. He was condemned to death. With the utmost com- 

KL. M. T. — S 



io6 Ancient Greece 

placency he drank the cup of hemlock and expired at the age of 
seventy years. His admiring pupil Xenophon wrote an account 
of his teaching. 

90. Plato. — The greatest of the pupils of Socrates was Plato 
(427-347 B.C.). An ambitious youth and ardent student, Plato 
began as a poet ; but one day he happened to hear Socrates speak- 
ing to a crowd of eager listeners. He was captivated, and re- 
solved thenceforth to give his life to philosophy. He became a 
faithful follower of the great teacher, and when Socrates was con- 
demned to death Plato went into exile. Returning to Athens, he 
became a teacher in the garden called the Academy. From this 
we get our word academy, a place of learning. 

Like Socrates, Plato believed in God and immortality. No 
other pagan teacher, it has been said, had so many points of 
affinity with Christian teaching. Unlike Socrates, Plato put 
his thoughts into written form. Many of his writings are in the 
form of dialogues in which Socrates is one of the speakers. His 
Republic pictures what the ideal state should be. His writings, 
full of poetic beauty and profound wisdom, left a deep impression 
on his age, and have been the delight of all ages since his day. 

91. Aristotle. — In the renowned triumvirate of Athenian 
philosophers, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) comes third. Born fifteen 
years after the death of Socrates, he was linked with that great 
man by Plato, who was the pupil of Socrates and the teacher of 
Aristotle. For many years Aristotle was a diligent student under 
Plato, but he worked out his own system of philosophy. He did 
not, like his teacher, confine himself to mind and morals ; he 
dealt also with material things and with natural law. He wrote 
profoundly on logic, rhetoric, politics, poetry, physics, and meta- 
physics, and his works stand among the masterpieces of the ages. 

It may be said that as Plato surpassed his teacher, Socrates, 
so Aristotle surpassed Plato. It is the common belief and is 
probably true that Aristotle stands without a peer as a philosophic 
thinker, that his intellect was the most profound and masterly 
in the history of the world. 



The Great Philosophers 107 

Philip II, king of Macedonia, secured the services of this famous 
Greelv philosopher as preceptor to his son and heir to his crown, 
Alexander, whom we know as Alexander the Great. For many- 
years the royal pupil sat at the feet of the great Athenian, and 
later when he came to his father's throne he remembered his former 
teacher with many valuable gifts. 

Questions and Topics. — I. What did Pericles do for Athens? See 
what you can find about Pericles in the school library. Write a short 
essay on Athens in the time of Pericles. Can you name a half dozen 
men now living who have, in your opinion, achieved immortal fame? 

II. Describe the finest piece of architecture known to have been 
produced by the ancient world. Who was Phidias? What is meant by 
classic? Name a living sculptor. 

III. What is literature? What can you tell of Homer? Can you 
name an epic poem written in English? What is lyric poetry? Who 
were Pindar and Sappho? Describe the theater of Dionysus. What 
was the origin of the word tragedy? What is a drama? a dramatist? 
Who were the great Greek historians? By what means did Demos- 
thenes train himself in oratory? Why did an orator in those days have 
greater power than one in our times? 

IV. What is philosophy? What was the maxim of Socrates ? What 
was Plato's religion? Write a short essay on Aristotle. Do we give 
as much attention to the fine arts as the Athenians did? Do we give 
as much attention to money making? What can we learn by studying 
Athenian life? 

Events and Characters. — Great work of Pericles. Adorning of the 
Acropolis; Phidias and Praxiteles, great sculptors. Homer and the 
Iliad, about 1000 b.c. Sappho and Pindar. yEschj-lus, Sophocles, Eu- 
ripides. Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon. Demosthenes. Socrates, 
Plato, Aristotle. 

For Further Reading. — Same references as in preceding chapter; 
also Tarbell, History of Greek Art. Gardner, IIa)id Book of Greek 
Sculpture. Seignobos, History of Ancient Civilization, Ch. XIV. Good- 
speed, History of the A ncicnt World. 

Every teacher should require the class to read selections from the 
sources, such as may be found in the Source Books by Fling and Bots- 
ford. Each pupil should read the Funeral Oration of Pericles, at least 
one oration of Demosthenes, and excerpts from Plato and others. 



CHAPTER VII 
WARS OF THE GREEKS 

I. The Persian Wars 

92. Beginnings of a World Struggle. — For a thousand years 
or more before 500 B.C., the people of Hellas flourished unmolested 
in the land of Greece. They plowed the seas near and far with 
their little craft ; they planted many colonies and developed a 
great commerce. At the beginning of the fifth century B.C. the 
Greeks were making great progress in philosophy, in literature 
and art, and in beautifying their cities. Now and then in the 
past they had had their petty wars among themselves or on their 
borders, but never had they comiC into serious hostile contact 
with any dangerous foe from without. 

But an evil day came and the Greeks found themselves in a 
long life-and-death struggle with the greatest military power in 
the world. This conflict with the Persian Empire (sec. 34), known 
as the Persian Wars, occurred just before the brilliant outburst 
of genius in Athens as noted in the last chapter. 

Darius was now on the Persian throne. He was extending 
his vast empire into Europe. He had annexed all of Asia Minor, 
including the Greek cities on the ^Egean coast. He had made 
the Greek colonies about the Hellespont, and all around the Black 
Sea, subject to his iron rule. He annexed Thrace and Macedonia 
even up to the boundary of Thessaly. When the Greeks of Asia 
Minor revolted, he destroyed the noble city of Mile'tus, one of 
the largest and most cultured of all the Greek cities, leveled it 
to the ground, slew its defenders, and sold its women and children 
into slavery. 

It seemed for a time as if the whole of Greek civilization was 

108 



The Persian Wars 109 

to be destroyed by the invading hordes of the Orient. But the 
Great King had yet to reckon with Athens and Sj^arta. The 
Athenians had sent aid to their hapless kinsmen of Miletus, and 
Darius was incensed ; he would. take revenge on a people so bold 
as to raise a hand against him. He pra3"ed to his god that he 
might have vengeance on Athens, and he bade an officer repeat 
to him at ever}' meal, " Master, remember the Athenians." He 
had reason later to remember the Athenians, and the world re- 
members them to this day. 

93. The Battle of Marathon (490 b.c). — King Darius was de- 
termined to punish the little Grecian states for defying the great 
Persian power. But first he would give them a chance to save 
themselves from destruction. He sent messengers to them to 
demand earth and water as an acknowledgment that he was 
governor of both land and sea. Many of the Greeks trembled 
in fear of the Great King. They gave his messengers earth and 
water; but not so at Athens and Sparta. The Athenians cast 
the messengers into a pit ; the Spartans threw them into a well 
and bade them get all the earth and water thej' wanted. 

Darius now made it a matter of honor to punish the Greeks. 
He collected a fleet of 600 vessels, and on them sent a great army 
to the coast of Attica. The Athenians sent a swift long-distance 
runner to Sparta to ask aid in repelling the Persian hordes. The 
distance was 150 miles, but he reached Sparta the next day after 
starting. " Men of Laced?emon," he cried, " the Athenians im- 
plore you to come to their aid." The Spartans were willing, but 
owing to a superstition their army would not move before the 
full moon. The Athenians had to fight the battle alone, for the 
Persians were at hand and delaj' was impossible. 

The Persian army landed on the plain of Marathon, about 
24 miles northeast of Athens. The Athenian army was 10,000 
strong, and on the eve of the battle it was increased by a thousand 
men from the friendly city of Platnea in Boeotia. The number of 
the Persian host is given by Herodotus as ten times greater, but 
it is believed that his figures are too large. 



no 



Ancient Greece 



There were ten Athenian generals, who usually commanded 
in turn. The ablest of these was Miltiades (mil-ti'a-dez), and 
he was chosen by his fellows to command on this famous day. 
The Persians opened the battle by shooting a cloud of arrows 
through the air. The Greeks darted beneath the flying missiles 
and grappled with the foe in a deadly hand-to-hand conflict. 
The Greeks were far superior in skill and training, and after the 

battle lines had surged to 
and fro a short time, the 
Persians gave way and 
ran to their ships, leaving 
many dead and dying on 
the field.i 

94. Results of Mara- 
thon. — Never before in 
the world's history had 
so much depended on 
the outcome of a battle 
as at Marathon. It was 
this conflict that decided 
whether Greek or Asiatic civilization was to prevail in Europe dur- 
ing the centuries to come. Had the Persians won this battle they 
would soon have overrun all Greece. Oriental despotism would 
have crushed out the growing democracy of this liberty-loving 
people, and its blossoming literature and art would have been 
blasted before the season of its fruitage. For thousands of years 
the leadership in human progress and civilization had been held 
by Asia, but now it passed into the hands of Europe, where it has 
since remained, and the supreme moment in making the transfer 
was the moment of the turning of the tide of battle on the plain 
of Marathon. 

1 It is said that an Athenian soldier, covered with blood and wounds, ran to carry 
the glorious news of the victory to Athens. When he reached the edge of the city 
the people gathered around him. He was dying from exhaustion and loss of blood. 
As he fell to the ground he gasped with his last breath, "Rejoice; we triumph." 
Modern Marathon races get their name from this famous incident. 



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Battle of Marathon, 490 b.c. 



The Persian Wars 



III 



95. The Ten Years' Respite. — The battle of Marathon placed 
Attica at the forefront of Greek states and made Athens the heart 
of the civilized world. A mound was thrown up on the battlefield 
to mark the grave of the heroic dead, and 
there it may be seen to this day. Miltiades 
was the hero of the hour, and statues were 
erected in his honor at Athens and Delphi. 

The Persians returned to their own land 
beaten and dejected ; but King Darius was 
all the more resolved that he would conquer 
the Greeks at any cost. He began prepar- 
ing a gigantic expedition, but died before it 
was completed. His son and successor, 
Xerxes (zurk'sez), a man far less able and 
far more boastful than Darius, continued 
the preparation. 

Meantime Miltiades had died and another 
great man had arisen in Athens. This was 
Themistocles (the-mis'to-klez), the leading 
statesman of his time. Themistocles was 
convinced that the hope of the future lay 
in making Athens a great sea power. Within 
a few years Athens had 200 triremes (trl'- 
remz), the largest warships of the time. A 
trireme was a ship with three banks or tiers 
of oars, one above another. The oars of 
one tier were a yard longer than those of 
the tier below it. It required about two 
hundred men to handle a trireme. 

From time to time the news reached the 
Greeks that great preparations were going 




t;P/\ JA- ^^ 



(Jkl:kk \V.\krior 



' Bas-relief of a hoplitc, or heavy-armed foot soldier, found in 1838 some ten 
miles south of Marathon. It represents an .^ttic warrior of about 525 B.C. He is 
ready for battle, with all his armor on. The background was red, and the 6gurc 
was painted in various colors. It is now in the National Museum at .\thens. 



112 



Ancient Greece 



on in Asia for another invasion of Greece. At length in the spring 
of 480 B.C. came the startling news that Xerxes, with the greatest 
army and navy ever assembled, had reached the Hellespont. 

96. Thermopylae. — One of the immortal words in Greek 
history is Thermop'ylae. 

The vast Persian army had crossed the narrow strait of the 
Hellespont on bridges of boats. It required seven days and 
nights to make the passage. Herodotus makes the number of 
fighting men 1,700,000, besides great numbers of followers. 
While his figures are doubtless too high there is little doubt that it 
was the greatest army ever assembled up to that time. This 
mighty horde now poured into Europe for the purpose of destroy- 
ing the independence of Greece. And it was Athens that was the 
chief object of the Great King's wrath — Athens that had defied 
and humbled his father's army ten years before at Marathon. 
But Athens did not now stand alone. Various Greek states 
joined her, and among them was Sparta. 

The Persians occupied all northern Greece, and to reach the 
central part they attempted the narrow passage at Thermopylae. 

But here the Greeks made 



BAY OF MA LIS 





L J ^ R l| S 



^^ t C 3 I I 1 d r m u s iijV^ 

fVi-i^j DOR I s P H O C I S 



'"*; 



a stand, with a small army 
— three hundred Spartans 
with a few thousand allies. 
They were led by the Spar- 
tan king Leon'idas. As 
the Persians approached, 
the Greeks leaped upon and 
slew them with their long 
spears. Again and again 
the Persians rushed upon 
the Grecian phalanx, each 
time to be cut down and 

their bodies added to those of their fallen comrades. 

For three whole days this little band of men held the mighty 

army at bay. Then a traitorous Greek, in the hope of gaining a 



Pass of Thermopyl^ 

At the time of Leonidas the pass was a path 
under the cHfE about 40 feet wide. 



The Persian Wars 113 

reward, betrayed his countrj^men by pointing out to Xerxes a 
secret path across the mountains. Soon the Persian hosts were 
pouring over tlie mountain in a torrent. To remain now at their 
posts meant certain death to the Greeks. Most of the alhes 
fled ; but Sparta had a law that bade her men conquer or die. 
Leonidas and his brave three hundred stood their ground and 
fought till every man was slain. ^ 

97. A View of the Two Annies. — Great was the consternation 
among the Hellenes when the Persians broke through the moun- 
tain barriers into Central Greece. The way was now open to 
Athens. Many of the Greeks had already yielded to the in- 
vaders. Would the fruits of the noble victory of ten years before 
at Marathon be lost? Would European civilization be rent 
asunder and swallowed up by the Oriental despot and his Asiatic 
hordes? This was the vital question that had to be decided in 
this fateful year 480 B.C. 

The invading host was a motley crowd. There were the 
Persians and Medes wearing soft tiaras, tunics of various colors 
about their bodies, " having scales upon them like the scales 
of a fish." They were armed with short spears and large 
bows with reed arrows, and each carried a dagger in his girdle. 
There were Assyrians with brass helmets, carrying shields, lances, 
daggers, and wooden clubs studded with iron. There were also 
Scythians (sTth'i-anz) with their heavy battle-axes, men of India 
in cotton tunics bearing bows of cane with iron-pointed cane 
arrows, Parthians in cloaks of skin, Ethiopians clothed in leopard 
skins, Arabians, and many others, each with the dress and equip- 
ment of his countr3^ 

Against this motley horde the Greeks had to fight the battle 
of a higher civilization, not only for themselves, but for future 
generations. The Greeks were far fewer in numbers, but they 

* Two brothers of King Xerxes were killed in this fight, says Herodotus, and the 
Persians " fell in heaps." A stone lion was erected to mark, the spot where Leonidas 
fell. The slain were buried where they died, and an inscription that marked the 
place read : " Go, stranger, tell the Lacediemonians that we died in obedience to 
their law." 



114 Ancient Greece 

had the great advantage of being better trained and of battling 
for home and family. The invaders had to be scourged into battle 
by their ofificers. 

98. The Battle of Salamis. — The Great King entered Attica 
and was marching with his mighty host toward the doomed city. 
But Xerxes must have had his misgivings. He knew what mar- 
velous warriors the Greeks had proved themselves at Marathon 
and Thermopylae, and he heard many stories of the Greek char- 
acter. Here is one from Herodotus : 

The Great King was questioning some Greeks in his camp about 
the Olympic games. " For what prize do they contend? " 
asked the king. " An olive wreath," answered the men. One 
of the king's men thereupon exclaimed, " Good heavens, what 
manner of men are these against whom thou hast brought, us to 
fight — men who contend with one another, not for money, but 
for honor ! " 

The city of Athens was deserted and the soldiers boarded the 
ships that lay in the bay between Attica and the island of 
Salamis. The Persian host marched on, entered the deserted 
Athens and burned it to the ground. Many of the Greeks now 
trembled with fear and were ready to flee for safety in their 
ships to the open sea, for the Persian fleet was near at hand. 
The boldest heart among them was that of their commander, 
Themistocles. He wanted to fight there, in the narrow bay, 
where he knew the Greeks would have the advantage. He 
sent Xerxes a letter urging him to attack immediately, lest the 
Greek ships should escape him altogether. The Great King, 
thinking it from some friendly sympathizer, took the bait. He 
ordered his fleet to attack without delay. Then occurred the 
battle of Salamis (480 b.c), one of the most famous sea fights in 
history. 

Xerxes had nearly 800 ships, and the Greeks had less than half 
that number. On a high place on the shore near by Xerxes had a 
throne erected, and on this he sat and watched the contest. What 
did he see ? 



The Persian Wars 



"5 



He saw the well-trained Greeks ram his awkward vessels, 
smash their sides, and send them to the bottom of the bay. He 
saw thousands of men sink to rise no more. When he realized 
that the Greeks had won a complete victory, and that they might 
destroy his bridge of boats across the Hellespont, he hastened 




A Section of a Greek Trteleme (Restoration) 

The Athenian trireme was a ship having three banks of oars. The oarsmen were 
placed in tiers, the top row wielding the longest oars. The ship was about 115 
feet long, with a height above water of 10 feet and a width across decks of 18 feet. 

away with a large part of his army, betook himself back to Asia, 
and never again returned to the Grecian shores. 

After the remainder of the Persian army had been destroyed 
the next year at the battle of Plataea, the Persian monarch aban- 
doned all hope of conquering Greece. A few years later he was 
forced to sign a humiliating treaty by which he was prohibited 
from having a fleet in the .^gean Sea or an army within three 
days' march of its coasts. 



II. Civil War in Greece 

99. Weakness in the Greek Character. — After the Persian 
Wars, as we have seen, came the Age of Pericles. In many 
respects the Greeks were the leading people and the most ad- 
mirable of antiquity. Small and half barren as their little 
country was, they developed a taste, a genius, in sculpture and 



ii6 Ancient Greece 

architecture, in literature, philosophy, and oratory, that no other 
people, however great, has been able to surpass, and to this day the 
Greek models are followed and imitated in every civilized land. 

But in one respect the Greeks were seriously deficient. They 
were wanting in the instinct of government. Kindred peoples 
as they were, with the same language and the same religion, it 
seems to us that they should have united their various states in 
a powerful all-Greek empire for the safeguarding of their in- 
stitutions. But this they could not do. Many of the city- 
states developed strong local governments, but to unite in one 
solid union for the benefit of all seemed beyond their capacity. 
Had the thirteen American colonies, on winning their independence 
from British control, shown no better capacity for organizing a 
central government than that which characterized the Greeks, 
they would doubtless have fallen a prey to foreign intrigue and 
internal strife, and the great American nation of to-day would 
not exist. 

The saddest chapter in the story of the Greeks is the account 
of their many disastrous, vicious wars among themselves, in 
which each side often appealed to the Persian king against their 
own brethren. The Peloponnesian War, the longest and most 
important of these conflicts, marked the beginning of the end 
of Grecian glory. 

100. Athens against Sparta. — The southern Greeks, led by 
Sparta, formed a league called the Peloponnesian League. Farther 
north a confederacy was formed under the leadership of Athens, 
and gradually was transformed into an Athenian empire; it 
embraced parts of Central Greece, Thessaly, and most of the 
islands and coast lands of the ^Egean Sea. The Spartans were 
Dorians (sec. 50), the Athenians were lonians ; and there was 
usually a spirit of rivalry, sometimes even of hatred, between 
the Dorian and Ionian Greeks. A conflict was inevitable, and 
in 431 B.C. the long, disastrous, fratricidal war had its beginning. 
It followed close upon the golden age of Athens, described in the 
last chapter. 



Civil War in Greece 



117 



Pericles was still at the helm in Athens at the outbreak of the 
war, and he guided affairs with a steady hand ; but two years later 
(429 B.C.) he died of a pestilence that swept over the city, and 
there was none to fill his place. Seldom has a people suffered so 




Greece in the Time of the Peloponnesian War 



great a loss at a critical moment as the Athenians suffered in the 
death of Pericles. 

Athens was strong on the sea, and her fleets harassed the south- 
ern coasts. Sparta was weak on the sea, but strong in land forces, 
and her armies devasted many a fair community in the north. 

loi. Alcibiades and the Sicilian Expedition. — During a brief 
respite in the long struggle, a new war leader arose in Athens, — 



ii8 Ancient Greece 

Alcibiades (al-si-bl'a-dez), a man of much ability, young, popular, 
and dashing, but weak in judgment and in patriotism. This 
reckless young leader proposed that Athens undertake the con- 
quest of Sicily, where some allies of Athens were already at war 
with Syracuse. It was a daring and perilous undertaking, but 
it appealed to the imagination, and the young men in thousands 
offered to join it. A great and costly fleet was built and in 415 
B.C., with many thousands of men on board, it moved out of 
the harbor and sailed away for the western land. 

But Alcibiades was accused of a crime, and instead of standing 
trial he turned traitor to his country and fled to Sparta. Sparta, 
advised by Alcibiades, sent a strong force to Sicily, and the 
Athenians were defeated. In later battles their whole fleet and 
army in Sicily were destroyed. The people of Athens "wept and 
wailed over the loss of this splendid fleet and the forty thousand 
Athenians and allies who had perished. Never before had so 
great a calamity befallen them, and never again was Athens so 
prosperous and so great as it had been. 

102. The Fall of Athens. — Sparta, with the aid of Persian 
gold, built a formidable fleet, and soon she discovered a strong 
commander. Lysan'der was the new master of the Spartan fleet. 
Eight years had passed since the disaster in Sicily, and Athens 
again had a splendid fleet of 200 triremes. The two fleets 
met in the waters of the Hellespont. The Athenians of- 
fered battle ; the wily Lysander, safe under the walls of a city, 
refused. Day after day the same thing occurred. The Athenians 
came to believe that the Spartans were afraid to meet them. 
They grew careless and one day nearly all went ashore at the 
same time, leaving their ships in an open harbor. Thereupon 
Lysander deftly glided into the harbor and captured the entire 
fleet. The Athenians on shore, seeing what was taking place, 
ran with all haste to save their ships, but they could do nothing. 
Not only did they fail to save their fleet, but three thousand of 
them were captured by Lysander and every man put to death. 
Such was the cruelty of this cruel war. 



Civil War in Greece ttq 

Swiftly the news flew to Athens ; the consternation and despair 
can only be imagined. Nothing since the Sicilian disaster was 
comparable to this. 

The long war was nearing its end. Athens was not strong on 
land and she could not recover from this second calamity on the 
sea. She lay now at the mercy of Sparta, as every one knew. 
Lysander did not hurry ; he knew that his prey could not escape. 
The following spring (404 B.C.), he appeared with his fleet in the 
harbor and demanded the surrender of the city that had so long 
defied the Spartan power. The people of Athens held out for a 
few weeks, but there was nothing before them but to throw them- 
selves on the mercy of their enemies. They accepted the hard 
terms imposed by the Spartan commander, and the Pelopon- 
nesian War, of twenty-seven years' duration, was at an end. 

Never in history was there a more regrettable war than 
this conflict of Greeks against Greeks. Thucydides the his- 
torian, who lived through most of the period, tells us that the 
devastation was frightful. The destruction of cities and the 
slaughter of the inhabitants, the wiping out of whole towns and 
villages, marked the path of the armies as they traversed the 
Grecian world year after year. Never thereafter did Greece 
recover from this damaging blow she had inflicted on herself 
through the Peloponnesian War. 

103. Our Heritage from the Greeks. — Regretfully we take 
leave of these interesting people. This disastrous war marked 
the passing of the zenith of Grecian glory. Unable to recover 
from its effects, the Greek states in the next century fell a prey 
to the encroachments of Macedonia and still later were ab- 
sorbed in the might}^ Roman Empire. But Greece had lived her 
life and had done her work in the world. It was the Greeks that 
saved the world for freedom by beating off the Persians. They 
established the principles of democracy which are to-day the 
pride of our own country. In architecture and sculpture we still 
copy the Greek models. In physical culture no people pretends 
to surpass the ancient Greeks. No greater philosophers than 



I20 Ancient Greece 

Plato and Aristotle are known to the annals of history. Homer 
and half a dozen other Greek writers stand in the first rank among 
literary men of all time. The Greeks became the teachers of 
Europe, and in culture and refined taste the men of ancient 
Greece stand preeminent to this day in all civilized lands. 

Side Talk 

Ostracism. — The Athenians had a curious custom established about 
the time of the battle of Marathon, called Os'tracism. It was a system 
by which a public man could be banished from the country for ten years, 
later reduced to five years. The voting was done on pieces of oyster- 
shell (ostrakon) and from this came the term ostracism. Each voter 
wrote the name of the person he would banish on the shell and dropped 
it into an urn. At least six thousand votes were necessary for an elec- 
tion, and if more than half of them were cast against a man he was 
obliged to go into exile. 

The object of this custom was to protect the state against the designs 
of tyrants by making it possible for the citizens to ostracize any one 
suspected of selfish designs on the government. But the privilege was 
shamefully abused. Any very popular or influential citizen was in 
danger of being ostracized. Some of the noblest and best men that 
Athens ever produced were driven from their homes after a service to 
the state that should have brought them the highest honor and love of 
the people. One of these was the great statesman Themistocles, the 
builder of the Athenian fleet and the winner of Salamis, the most famous 
naval battle of antiquity. He had made enemies and through their 
intrigues and owing to some mistakes of his public life he was put on 
trial. When the vote was counted more than half the little shells were 
found to bear his name and he was sent into exile. Sadly he departed 
from his native land, to which he was never to return. He went. to 
Persia and was received with highest honor and was intrusted with 
the government of a province. 

Among the most prominent contemporaries of Themistocles was 
Aristi'des, a man of high character who became known as Aristides the 
Just. He too fell under the displeasure of the fickle public and was 
ostracized. The story is told that on the day of the voting a man who 
could not write, being near Aristides and not knowing him by sight, 
asked him to write " Aristides " on his shell. Aristides did so and then 
asked the man, " Why do you wish to ostracize him? " " Because," 
was the answer, " I am tired of hearing him called the Just." 



Ostracism 121 

Questions and Topics. — I. Who were the Persians ? How and 
when did they come into world power? Why did they wish to subdue 
the Greeks? In what way was the battle of Marathon a landmark 
in history? In what way are we indebted to the men who won the 
battle? Describe the stand of Leonidas and his men at Thermopylae. 
What can you tell of Themistocles and the battle of Salamis ? 

II. What was the great weakness in the Greek character? Com- 
pare the Greek states with our own thirteen colonies after the Revo- 
lution. Can you show that the Spanish-speaking countries of South 
America would have had better government since they won their inde- 
pendence if they had formed a union? What has kept the South 
American countries from falling into the hands of the powers of Europe ? 
Who was Lysander? Write an essay on Our Heritage from the Greeks. 

Events and Dates. — Battle of Marathon, Greeks defeat the Persians, 
490 B.C. ; also, they win the great sea fight at Salamis ten years after 
Marathon. Long war between Athens and Sparta begins 431 B.C. 
Death of Pericles, 429 B.C. Surrender of Athens to Lysander, 404 b.c. 

For Further Reading. — Same as in the preceding chapter ; also 
Greenidge, Handbook of Greek Constitutional History. Seignobos, His- 
tory of Ancient Civilization, Ch. XIII. Fowler, City State of the Greeks 
and Romans. Every school should have at least one copy of Plutarch's 
Lives, and in studying Greek and Roman history the pupils should read 
and discuss the more important biographies given therein. 



CHAPTER VIII 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT 

I. King Philip and Macedonia 

104. Rise of Macedonia. — North of Greece, extending from 
the boundary of Thessaly, lay Macedonia. It was a wild region 
of lofty mountains and it comprised also two broad river valleys 
opening to the i4£gean Sea. For unknown ages this rugged land 
had been occupied by a semi-barbarous people partly of Greek 
stock. They tilled the soil but little ; they raised flocks and 
herds, but their chief business was hunting and fighting. The 
Macedonian who had not slain a wild boar was not permitted to 
eat at the table with the men, and one who had not killed his man 
in battle was obliged to wear a cord around his waist. 

The Macedonians were hundreds of years behind the Dorians 
and lonians in civilization, but as they had been admitted to the 
Olympic games we know that they were recognized as Greeks. 
They had no written laws ; they were governed by a king whose 
word was law and whose power was almost absolute. The Persian 
control of Macedonia (sec. 92) was of short duration. 

105. Philip of Macedon (359-336 b.c). — The first of the 
Macedonian kings to make a name for himself and to lift his 
country into prominence was Philip II, known in history as 
Philip of Macedon (mas'e-don). As a youth he spent some years 
as a hostage in Thebes, which was for a short time the leading 
state in Greece. Here the young prince learned the arts of peace 
and of war, and when he ascended the throne of Macedonia in 
359 B.C. he was thoroughly trained and was burning with an am- 
bition to make his country the leader of the Greek states. 

Exhausted by nearly a hundred years of internal strife, Greece 



Alexander the Great 123 

was no longer in condition to resist any great power that might 
come against her. Philip knew this and he was conscious of his 
own power. He was a man of imposing appearance, athletic, 
affable, and was a wonderful organizer. His ultimate purpose was, 
not to subdue and tyrannize over the Greek states, but to unite 
them under his leadership so as to present a solid front against 
the Persian king, who again held in his grasp many of the Greek 
cities of Asia Minor. By means of his army, by strategy of which 
he was a master, and by the use of gold for bribery, Philip carried 
out his plans with steady aim and with consummate skill. 

Many of the cities of northern Greece were won by bribery. 
" No fortress is impregnable," said Philip, " if only one can in- 
troduce within it a mule laden with gold." 

Philip's greatest obstacle was the resistance of Athens, led by 
the great orator Demosthenes (sec. 88), but even this was finally 
overcome by war, and Philip found himself master of nearly all 
Greece. Calling a congress at Corinth, he formed a confederacy 
with himself at the head, leaving each state to govern itself. 
Philip now revealed the great project of his life — the conquest 
of Persia. He had himself appointed commander in chief, and 
all preparations were made for a great expedition to the Orient. 
Soon after this the career of the ambitious monarch was cut short 
by assassination. 

Phihp of Macedon was a great ruler, with all the virtues and 
many of the faults of his age. Though cut off in the midst of 
his years, at the age of forty-seven, his name would stand higher 
among the records of the great but for the overshadowing fame 
of his illustrious son, who succeeded to the Macedonian throne. 

II. Alexander 

106. Early Life of Alexander. — In the year 356 B.C., at the 

capital of Macedonia, was born a prince who was destined to 
become one of the most renowned warriors in the history of the 
world. 
While very young, Alexander evinced remarkable will, courage, 



124 



Ancient Greece 



and energy. The well-known story of his riding the untamed 
horse, Buceph'alus, illustrates his character. As a boy he was 
thoughtful and calculating. He looked forward to the time when 
he. would succeed his father on the throne and become the hero 
of great deeds. On one occasion when the people were rejoicing 

over a victory won by King 
Philip, Alexander com- 
plained that his father 
would conquer every coun- 
try and leave nothing for 
him to do. 

As a teacher for his son 
and heir, King Philip had 
secured the celebrated 
Greek philosopher Aristotle 
(sec. 91), and to him the 
future conqueror was in- 
debted for his cultivated 
taste for literature and 
philosophy. Alexander be- 
came exceedingly fond of 
Homer, and a finely written 
copy of the Iliad, presented 
to him by his teacher, he 
carried with him in all his 
campaigns. Among his com- 
panions, Alexander was gen- 
erous and kind-hearted, but he never permitted them to forget 
that he was born to a throne and that he was their master. But 
with all his good traits he had grave faults. He became a hard 
drinker as he approached manhood, and he had a vicious temper, 
which often got beyond his control. 

107. Crossing the Hellespont. — Alexander was but twenty 
years of age when he came to his father's throne. When the news 
of PhiUp's death spread over his extensive kingdom there were 




Alexander the Great 
From a bust in the Louvre. 



Alexander the Great 125 

signs of rebellion at many points against the youth who had 
succeeded him. But Alexander quickly gained the mastery. 
Then he marched into Greece and secured for himself the same 
promise of allegiance that had been made to his father. Thebes 
alone among the Greek cities rebelled, and he destroyed the city, 
selling 30,000 of the people into slavery and sparing only the 
temples, the priests, and the house of Pindar the poet. 

Alexander was now ready to enter upon the great project of 
his life, which had been the dream of his father — the conquest 
of Persia. After a great religious festival of nine days to Jupiter 
and the Muses, his splendid army of 35,000 men set out on the 
great journey from which few were ever to return. 

The troops marched overland to the Hellespont, where 150 
triremes had been sent to bear them across the narrow strait. 
The landing was made at Aby'dos in Asia Minor, not far from 
the ruins of the ancient city of Troy. To the site of this famous 
city Alexander paid a visit while his army was crossing the strait. 
Here among the ruins he reread the vivid descriptions of Homer 
which his great teacher, Aristotle, had taught him to love in his 
boyhood, and he was inspired as never before to imitate the great 
deeds of the heroes of the Trojan War. 

108. Tact and Foresight of Alexander. — Perhaps there has 
been in all history no more consummate genius than Alexander 
in bending everything within his reach to the one ultimate goal. 
When he destroyed the city of Thebes he meant to give a terrible 
example of the penalty that awaited those who might be tempted 
to rebel against his power, but his sparing the house of Pindar 
made him friends among poets and authors everywhere, and his 
sparing of the priests and temples won him thousands of admirers 
among religious devotees. Before starting on his Persian ex- 
pedition he owned vast estates as private property. Caring 
nothing for riches, he gave away his lands, parceling them out 
among his friends and officers, thus " grappling them to his soul 
with hoops of steel." Being asked what he had left for himself, 
he answered, " Hope." 



126 Ancient Greece 

Again, after campaigning for some months in Asia Minor, 
winning in every contest, he decided, on the approach of winter, 
to permit every man who had been married shortly before leaving 
home to return and spend the winter with his bride and rejoin 
the army in the spring. The offer was gladly accepted, and though 
the bridegrooms were not so many that their absence weakened 
the army greatly, they were sufhciently numerous to spread the 
news of his brilliant victories and his generosity to every comer 
of Greece and Macedonia. 

109. Exploits in Asia Minor. — In his march through Asia 
Minor Alexander rescued the Greek cities along the coast. One 
of these cities, Lamp'sacus, was said to have been obnoxious to 
the Greeks, and Alexander determined to destroy it. The people 
of the city, hearing of his intention, sent a messenger to implore 
his mercy. As the man approached, Alexander, knowing his 
mission, took an oath that he would not grant his request. The 
messenger's wit did not desert him. He quickly said, " I am 
come to implore you to destroy Lampsacus." Alexander, pleased 
at the man's wit, kept his oath literally and spared the city. 

Turning inland, the conqueror visited Gor'dium, the old capital 
of Phrygia (frij'i-a; map facing page 128). In the temple was 
the sacred chariot of the old king Gordius. The king had tied the 
pole of the chariot to the yoke with a thong. The knot, it was 
said, could not be untied, and an oracle had declared that " he 
who can untie that knot will become master of Asia." Alexander 
solved the problem quickly by cutting the knot with his sword, 
and we still speak of solving an apparently insoluble problem as 
" cutting the Gordian knot." 

no. The Battle of Issus ; the Siege of Tyre (333 B.C.). — At 
the northeast corner of the Mediterranean lies the valley of Issus. 
Here the Persian king, Darius HI, with a vast army said to have 
numbered 600,000 men, met the Macedonian conqueror in battle. 
But his unwieldy host proved no match for the well-trained 
Greeks ; the victory of Alexander was complete. Darius had 
ordered his generals to " seize the young fool and send him bound 



Alexander the Great 



127 



hand and foot to Persia." But now he found it impossible him- 
self to do this, with his enormous army at his back. Darius had 
come to Issus with great pomp and had brought rich treasures, 
all of which fell into the hands of the enemy. His army was 
broken to pieces and. he himself escaped across the mountains 
with only a few followers. 

From Issus, Alexander proceeded down the coast to Tyre 
(sec. 46), the flourishing Phoenician city that sent its ships to every 
part of the known world. The city, situated on an island near 
the coast, was difficult of approach, but 
nothing humanly possible could daunt 
the ambitious Macedonian. He built a 
causeway or mole of earth and rock and 
timber through the sea to the island. 
This prodigious piece of work required 
half a year, but it was successful, and the 
invading army scaled the walls and took 
the city by storm. 

While here the conqueror received a 
communication from Darius offering him 
a great sum of money and agreeing to cede 
to him all the territory west of the Euphrates if he would stop 
his crusade of conquest against Persia. His leading general, Par- 
me'nio, urged his master to accept the offer. " I would, if I were 
Alexander," said Parmenio. " Yes," replied Alexander, " and so 
would I if I were Parmenio." The offer was haughtily rejected. 

III. Alexander in Egypt. — Leading his army into Egypt, 
Alexander found the people so submissive that he refrained from 
acts of violence. They had long been subject to Persia and they 
welcomed a change of masters. 

For two things this excursion by the great Macedonian into the 
land of the famous river is remembered in history : first, the 
founding of a city which he called after his own name, Alexandria, 
and which grew into one of the great cities of the world ; second, 
his visit to an Egyptian oracle. 




Siege of Tyre 



128 Ancient Greece 

By this time Alexander's head was completely turned. He 
was drunk with power. He desired to make his followers believe 
that he was a superhuman being. Far inland across the desert 
waste, in the verdant oasis of Siwah (se'wa), was located a temple 
to Jupiter Ammon, a celebrated deity of the time. Thither 
Alexander determined to go to inquire of the oracle if he was 
a god. With a chosen company he set out across the bound- 
less sea of sand. After a few days' march the men were appalled 
at the solitude of the vast expanse around them. The desert 
with its sublime and solemn stillness impresses the soul more 
profoundly than the rolling billows of the sea. The men would 
fain have turned back ; but Alexander urged them on. Nothing 
could daunt his iron will. Reaching the shrine, he had the priests 
proclaim him a son of Jupiter Ammon, and henceforth he tried to 
persuade himself and his followers to believe that he, like the 
heroes of Homer, was more than human. 

112. The Battle of Arbela (331 b.c). — The great and decisive 
victory in the career of the Macedonian warrior was yet to be won. 

Leaving a governor in charge 



MACEDONIANS 






^..-^ 



t<^< 



= =1nS 

persians 



of Egypt, Alexander moved 
northward through Syria and 
turned eastward into the heart 
of the Persian Empire. On the 
plains of Mesopotamia, near 
Battle of " Arbela " the site of Nineveh, he met the 

a, Macedonian heavy-armed foot soldiers ; mighty hostS of DariuS, and 

't^: T^^,>\:ii:Z"^:.t ^-^^ -- f-Sht one of the de- 

cisive conflicts in the world's 
history. It is known as the battle of Arbe'la, though the city 
of Arbela was twenty miles from the battle ground. 

The year that had passed since the battle of Issus, Darius had 
employed in collecting a far greater army than before. It con- 
sisted of more than a million men gathered from all parts of his 
vast empire. There were fifteen elephants, two hundred scythed 
chariots, and 40,000 horsemen. This mighty host was drawn 







Facing 128 



Alexander the Great 129 

up in battle array on an extensive plain north of the Tigris River, 
and here it awaited the invader. With a few attendants, under 
the cover of darkness, Alexander crept near and at break of day 
stood on a little hill overlooking the plain on which the Asiatic 
hosts were encamped. For miles the plain was covered with 
myriads of tents, with endless lines of soldiers ready for battle. 
His own army numbered scarcely fifty thousand. A weaker man 
would have quailed at the project before him. 

Alexander ordered the battle, and in one day of indescribable 
carnage the Persian legions were torn to pieces. King Darius 
escaped on a fleet horse, but was slain later by one of his own 
subjects. 

113. Babylon, Persepolis, and the Indus. — After his great 
victory of Arbela Alexander found himself master of the Persian 
Empire. From Arbela he proceeded southward to Babylon, 
which he chose to make his capital. Thence he went to Susa 
and later to Persepolis, in each of which he secured vast stores 
of gold and silver, the accumulation of ages of the Persian kings. 
At Persepolis, one of the capitals of the empire, he burned the 
great palace of the king and wreaked vengeance on the people, 
not for anything they had done, but because many years before 
one of their kings, Xerxes, had devastated Greece. 

After subduing some mountainous tribes of the north, Alexander 
led his army far to the east to the valley of the Indus in India. 
Even yet this man of boundless ambition was not satisfied. He 
would push on through India to the valley of the Ganges. But 
at last he found an obstacle that he could not overcome. His 
army refused to go farther. For two days Alexander sulked in 
his tent and then yielded to the wishes of his men and set out 
on the return journey to Babylon. 

114. Organizing the Empire; Death of Alexander. — The 
empire now controlled by Alexander was the most extensive the 
world had yet known. From the valley of the Indus in India to 
the western boundary of Greece and from the northern confines 
of the old Assyrian Empire to the southern boundary of Egypt — 



I30 



Ancient Greece 



I 



all was under the control of one man. But even this did not 
satisfy the restless soul of Alexander. He planned the conquest 
of Arabia, Africa, and western Europe, and determined to build 
a string of fortresses from Babylon to the Red Sea. 

Returning to Babylon, he organized the empire with great 
administrative skill. He now afifected to live as his Persian 




Death of Alexander the Great 

From a modern painting. Around his bed were gathered his generals. They 

asked whom he wished to succeed him. Drawing his signet ring from his finger, he 

said, " To the strongest." 

predecessors had lived. He established himself with all the 
pomp of Oriental monarchs and required his subjects to regard 
him with divine homage. But the time was fast approaching 
when this unconquered hero was to grapple with a foe that he 
could not conquer. He had gathered a great army and was 
about to make an expedition into Arabia when, one day in June, 
323 B.C., after a night of drinking and debauchery, he was seized 
with a violent fever. His powerful frame had been weakened with 
exhausting campaigns and sumptuous living, and he died, at the 



Alexander the Great 131 

age of thirty-three. His body was carried to Egypt and laid to 
rest in a golden coffin at the city of Alexandria, and a stately mau- 
soleum was erected in his honor. 

115. Results of the Career of Alexander. — It is difficult to 
appraise the work of this wonderful man. Brief and brilliant 
was his career. Through his amazing energy and his unbounded 
ambition he crowded into his short reign of thirteen years the 
deeds of many lifetimes. His armies never knew defeat. He 
conquered many nations and founded many cities. But such a 
man could have no successor. There was no power that could 
hold his empire together when he was gone, and it was divided 
among his generals. 

In Greece and Macedonia there was strife and warfare for many 
years, the Greeks continually trying to throw off the yoke of 
Macedonia. But the glory of Greece was in the past, and the 
history of this period is far less interesting than that of the olden 
days when Greece led the world in the arts of war and peace. 

Whatever may have been the motives of Alexander the Great, 
it is certain that, though his empire soon fell apart, his conquests 
were productive of great and lasting results. With all his grave 
faults Alexander was a true friend of learning and culture. His 
conquests broke down all barriers and ended the long strife be- 
tween the West and the East. They opened the way for Greek 
colonization and the carrying of Greek culture to the Orient. 
The Greek language also was diffused far and wide and it became 
the language of culture in many nations. This general leveling 
of the people of southeastern Europe and western Asia, and the 
diffusion of the Greek language and culture through the conquests 
of Alexander, smoothed the way for the conquest of Rome in a 
later century and still later for the spread of the Christian re- 
ligion. 

Questions and Topics. — I. Describe Macedonia and its early in- 
habitants. Tell what you know of Philip of Macedon. Why has 
Macedonia become interesting and important in recent years? 

II. Describe Alexander's youth. What is said of him in the cyclo- 



132 Ancient Greece 



pedia? In what way did he show great skill? Why did the Egyptians 
yield meekly to Alexander? Has a conqueror a moral right to make 
conquests? What do you think of the theory that might makes right? 
What was the extent of Alexander's empire? What good results came 
of his conquests? How did the acquiring of great power affect Alex- 
ander? Compare him with George Washington in this respect. 

Events and Dates. — Philip II, the first great king of Macedon, 
d. 336 B.C. Alexander the Great, b. 356 B.C.; taught by Aristotle. 
Siege of Tyre, 333 B.C. Battle of Arbela, 331 B.C. Death of Alexander, 
323 B.C. 

For Further Reading. — Seignobos, History of Ancient Civilization, 
Ch. XV. Mahaffy, Alexander's Empire. Goodspeed, History of the 
Ancient World. BuTy, History of Greece. Wheeler, Alexander the Great. 



i 



ANCIENT ROME 

CHAPTER IX 

EARLY ROME 

I. Prehistoric Italy 

1 1 6. Rome in History. — The greatest of the nations of the 
ancient world was Rome. The debt of the modern world to the 
ancients is incalculably great. Our modern arts and sciences 
for the most part had their origin in the far past. The modern 
civilized world is indebted to the Hebrews for its religion, to the 
Greeks for its best models of art and culture, and to Rome for its 
science of government and law. 

Rome began as a crude village of barbarians on the Ti'ber 
River. It grew into a city-state and was ruled by kings. More 
vigorous than its neighbors, it began to conquer and annex them, 
and so continued until the whole Italian peninsula came under its 
control. Then it reached out into the world and, as the centuries 
passed, it overpowered one people after another until the civilized 
world had yielded to the dominion of this one city. The kingdom 
was replaced by a republic, and the republic merged into an em- 
pire. Rome had its day and ran its course. It then fell to pieces 
and out of the fragments were formed many of the modern nations 
of Europe. In this first chapter of Roman history we shall study 
the beginnings of the great city. 

117. The Land of Italy. — Of the three great peninsulas com- 
prising southern Europe, the middle one is Italy. It is about 
two and a half times the size of Pennsylvania. The northern 
boundary is a mountain wall, the Alps, the loftiest mountain range 
in Europe. This mountain wall has often proved a barrier to 

133 



134 



Ancient Rome 



invading armies, from the earliest times down to the invasion by 
Austrians during the recent World War. From its foothills ex- 
tends the most expansive valley in Italy, the valley of the Po 



I 




Scale of Miles 



^H™.—.^ Cartha/fiy^ 



A F R/I C A 



Mountains, Rivers, and Divisions of Italy 

River, which opens eastward to the Adriatic Sea. South of the Po 
Valley is the Apennine mountain range, which curves to the south 
and extends through the peninsula to the " toe of the boot." 



Prehistoric Italy 135 

There is a marked contrast between the geography of Italy and 
that of Greece. The guhs and bays of Greece are chiefly on the 
east, making that part of the country inviting to settlers. On 
the other hand, the eastern coast of Italy, south of the Po Valley, 
is barren and forbidding, as the mountains in many places extend 
to the seashore. The western coast of Italy, with broader and 
more fertile plains, is more indented and more conducive to colo- 
nization. The two peninsulas, as one historian expresses it, turn 
their backs to each other. For this reason both countries were 
settled for hundreds of years before they came to know much of 
each other. 

118. The Early Inhabitants. — The dawn of historic times dis- 
closes in the peninsula which later came to be called Italy many 
independent peoples. Chief among them were the Italians, the 
Etrus'cans, and the Greeks. The Greeks occupied the southern 
coasts and were colonists from Greece, as v/e have already learned. 

The Italians came to be the dominant race, and gave their 
name to the peninsula. They were a group of Indo-European 
peoples, and had probably migrated from Asia or from eastern 
Europe at an early period, perhaps 2000 years B.C. The Italians 
occupied a large portion of central Italy. The most interesting 
subdivision of this race were the Latins, who dwelt in Latium 
(la'shi-um), just south of the Tiber, the largest of the rivers of the 
western slope of the Apennines. They tilled the soil in a rude way 
and kept flocks and herds. They lived in villages of huts with 
roofs of straw. Stockades were built on the near-by hills, and to 
them the people could flee for refuge on the approach of an enemy. 
Their chief city was Alba Longa, on the slope of the Alban Mount 
some miles southward from the Tiber. Here the people of Latium 
gathered once a year for a great festival, when they sacrificed an 
ox to Jupiter. 

That the Latins and other Italians were akin to the Greeks is 
indicated by the resemblance of the Latin and Greek languages. 
Perhaps in remote times they had been one people and in their 
migrations had become separated. Those settling in Greece and 



136 Ancient Rome 



the ^'Egean lands became the Greeks and those settling in Italy- 
became Italians. In their advance in civilization the Greeks left 
the Italians behind by several centuries because of their contact 
with the civilized peoples of the yEgean Islands, Asia Minor, and 
Egypt. 

The Etruscans were for a long time the most civilized people 
in Italy, except the Greeks on the southern coast. They occupied 
Etru'ria (now Tus'cany) on the western coast north of the Tiber, 
and they also had settlements in other parts of the peninsula. 
Who the Etruscans were and where they came from is not known. 
They were a mysterious people and bore no resemblance to their 
neighbors. They had a written language, but it is wholly un- 
known to modern scholars. The Etruscans built fine houses and 
tombs ; they made ornaments of gold and ivory and amber and 
had beautifully painted vases. Their religion was somber and 
depressing. They predicted the future through the flight of birds 
and the appearance of the entrails of animals offered in sacrifices, 
and this practice was copied from them by the Latins. 

119. Legends of Early Rome. — The founding of Rome, the 
Latin city that was destined to rule the world, took place in an 
early period, the date of which no one knows. But there grew 
up a wealth of legend about the early history of the city which 
was accepted as fact by the Romans and by the rest of the world 
for many hundred years. The historian Liv'y and the poet Ver'- 
gil put these fanciful stories in order long after Rome had become 
a world power. Here they are in a very brief form. 

iEne'as, one of the heroes of Troy (sec. 58), wandered to Italy 
and married Lavin-'ia, a daughter of the king of Latium. Among 
their descendants were the twin brothers, Rom'ulus and Re'mus, 
whose wicked uncle threw them into the Tiber and occupied the 
throne which should have been theirs. They drifted ashore, 
were nourished by a wolf and reared by a shepherd. On reaching 
manhood and discovering their origin they slew their uncle who 
had attempted to murder them. Romulus later founded a city 
on the Paratine hill, near a great bend in the Tiber River, 753 B.C., 



II 



I 



Legends of Early Rome 



137, 




and called it Rome after his own name.^ He drew many men to 
him and set up a city government. At first there was no family 
life in Rome, and to secure wives the men made a festival, invited 
the neighboring Sabines (sa'binz), and while it was in progress 
the Romans seized the young women and carried them off. Later 
the Romans and the Sabines became friends. After a reign of 
thirty-seven years Rom- 
ulus was translated to 
the skies and was after- 
ward worshiped as a god. 

There were seven 
kings of early Rome, 
Romulus being the first. 
The last of the kings was 
Tarquin'ius Super'bus, 
who extended the city 
boundaries and erected 
fine buildings. But he 
was so haughty and un- 
bearable to the people that they rose against him and drove him 
from the city.^ The people then set up a republic (509 b.c). 

There are many stories of the time of the Roman kings. Some 
of them are no doubt based on fact ; others are pure fiction. One 
of the most famous is the story of Horatius (ho-ra'shi-us) at the 
bridge. During a war with Etruria, it was said, a large Etruscan 
army, led by Lars Por'sena, approached the Tiber from the north. 
The only way to save Rome was to destroy a wooden bridge which 
spanned the river near the city. Strong men with axes rushed 
to the work, but the hostile army was at hand. At this moment 

1 There were six other hills near the Palatine on which Rome was founded. Two 
of them were also near the river, the Cap'itoline, which was farther up the stream, 
and the Av'entine, which was below the Palatine. Back of these were four hills 
known by the names Quir'inal, Vim'inal, Es'quiline and Cae'lian. In time all these 
were occupied by Rome and it was often called the City of the Seven Hills. 

^ It is believed by investigators of early Roman history that all the seven Roman 
kings were Etruscans. 

EL. M. T. 10 



The Hills of Rome 



138 Ancient Rome 

Horatius, a Roman captain, shouted that if two others would join 
him, they would go to the other end of the bridge and keep the 
enemy at bay till the work could be finished. Two men leaped 
forward and the three dauntless Romans were soon on the other 
side fighting the advance guard of the coming army. The men 
with axes struck blow on blow. The bridge began to totter, 
and they called to Horatius and his companions to hasten back 
and save their lives. Two of them did so, but Horatius remained 
and fought the enemy single-handed till the breaking timbers 
gave way and the bridge fell with a crash into the river. Hora- 
tius then leaped into the water and swam safely to the other shore. 
Rome was saved.^ 

II. Roman Religion and Social Life 

120. The Gods of the Romans. — The account of Greek reli- 
gion (sees. 59-61) covers, in a general way, the same subject with 
respect to the Romans, as there is much similarity between them. 
Only a few points peculiar to the Romans will need our atten- 
tion here. 

Jupiter was the greatest of the Roman gods, but Mars was the 
favorite deity. The people believed themselves the children of 
Mars, made feasts to him, and gave his name to the month of 
March, which was the first month in the Roman year. Ja'nus, 
the god of gates and of beginnings, had two faces, looking in oppo- 
site directions. The first month in our year received its name from 
this god. 

The Romans had a deity for everything that happened in nature. 
They invested the trees, the hills, the streams, and fountains 
with local spirits. One god caused the seed to sprout, another 
watched over the growth, while still another cared for the ripened 
grain. 

Vesta was the goddess of the home. In her temple at Rome 
were six vestal virgins, who kept the sacred fire forever burning 

' Lord Macaulay wrote a stirring ballad on Horatius at the Bridge. 



Roman Religion 139 

on the hearth. The welfare and safety of the city were supposed 
to depend on their fidelity to duty. 

The Penates (pe-na'tez) and Lares (la'rez) were household gods 
who guarded family life. They were invisible spirits who were 




School of Vestals 

The vestal virgins were girls chosen for a period of thirty years. In the first ten years 
they learned their duties, in the second ten they practiced them, and during the third 
they instructed the novices. Besides tending the sacred fire, the vestals offered sacrifice 
and poured on the altar libations of wine and oil. They occupied seats of honor at 
pubUc games. Like the members of later Christian sisterhoods, they were bound by 
vows not to marry. 

beHeved to hover about among the members of the family at all 
times. 

121. Priests and Worship. — The chief priest, called Pon'tifex 
Max'imus, was a high state officer. The priests serving under him 
had charge of the religious festivals and worship, but they were not 
charged with the care of souls ; they were merely servants of the 
gods and guardians of religious matters. 

The Roman did not worship the gods because he felt himself 
a sinner, but rather because he wished to gain some favor from 
them. And he expected his gods to respond in accordance with 



I40 Ancient Rome 

his devotion and offering. A great Roman general was dying; 
the people prayed for his recovery and offered sacrifices to the gods. 
But when it was announced that the general had died they grew 
angry, overturned the altars, and threw the statues of the gods 
into the streets. 

The Romans believed in signs and omens. What the Greeks 
tried to learn from the Delphian oracle the Romans thought they 
learned from watching the flights of birds and examining the en- 
trails of slain animals. The people were very superstitious, and 
every unusual occurrence excited attention. A comet or an 
eclipse in the sky, a lightning flash, even a rat running across 
the road — all these had their meaning to the superstitious Ro- 
man. At one time the Roman Senate was assembled to discuss 
a very strange occurrence, namely, that a chicken with three feet 
had been hatched. 

122. The Roman Family. — The foundation of Roman society 
was the family. The family consisted of the parents, the un-- 
married daughters, the sons with their wives and children. A 
daughter on being married became a member of her husband's 
family. The father of the family {pa'ter famil'ias) was absolute 
monarch in his own home. He could sell his wife and children 
into slavery, or even put them to death. Doubtless this right 
was very seldom exercised. The father performed the religious 
rites for the family and all outside the family were excluded from 
the ceremonies. 

Marriage was a religious duty for the Romans, as it was for the 
Greeks. A Roman woman, in the early period, was subject to 
her father until her marriage, after which she was subject to her 
husband. However, she was not a social cipher, as in Athens. 
She sat at the table with her husband, received visitors, and 
managed the slaves and household in her own way. She was free 
to go into the market place or to call on her friends as she liked. 

The children were taught in the home by the parents or by 
slaves until they reached the age of seven, when they were sent to 
school. The schools were private and each pupil had to pay a 



Social Life of Early Rome 




- Bas-relief from a Tombstone 
The two older sons of a landowner are reading under the direction of a tutor. 
The youngest son, wax tablets in hand, stands waiting for his turn to recite. 

small fee. Girls and boys were admitted to the schools, but 
usually a girl did not remain many years in school. She spent 
most of her girlhood with her mother, learning the duties of the 
household, preparing for an early marriage. In the schools the 
children learned to read, to write, and to cipher, but they were 
not taught music and poetry as in Greece. Books, like the Greek 
books (sec. 71), were few and expensive. For writing letters the 
Romans used tablets thinly coated with wax, on which they wrote 
with a small pointed rod called a stylus. The blunt end of the 
stylus was used in smoothing out the wax to make an erasure. 
The Roman youth was also taught self-reliance, respect for law, 
reverence for the gods, and obedience to authority. On the whole, 
the education of the Roman youth was well-rounded, but less 
attention was given to physical training than in Sparta, and less 
to training in the fine arts than in Athens. 

Above the Roman family were the gens (plural gen'tes), the 
cu'ria (plural curiae), and the tribe. The gens was composed of 
a number of families closely related to each other and descended 
from a common ancestor. The curia was formed by a union 
of several gentes, comprising the people of a community. 

At a later time the Roman people were divided into two great 
classes, — the Patricians (pa-trish'anz) and the Plebeians (ple- 
be'yanz) or Plebs. The patricians were the descendants of old 



142 Ancient Rome 

families who had founded the city, or had hved in or near it for a 
long time. In the early period they were the ruling class ; that is, 
they alone had the right to hold office and to appear in the as- 
sembly of the people. The plebs were the descendants of for- 
eigners and of conquered peoples round about Rome. 

III. The Government and the Army 

123. Govermnent of the Kingdom. — There was no royal fam- 
ily in Rome, even in the time of the kingdom. The king was 
chosen by the people. He had almost absolute power. He was 
chief priest, supreme judge, and commander of the army. When 
the king went out he was preceded by servants called lictors, 
bearing bundles of rods and an ax, thus to impress the people with 
his power to flog or to put to death. 

The Senate (from senex, an old man) was a body of elders who 
assisted the king and sanctioned his laws ; but it had no power 
except what he granted it. 

The Assembly of the people was called the comitia curiata 
(ko-mish'i-a ku-ri-a'ta). It was composed of all the patricians 
capable of bearing arms. This body was called to meet at times 
to advise with the king concerning great questions of peace and 
war. Later there was a new kind of assembly formed of all the 
soldiers. They were divided into companies of 100 men, called 
centuries, and the new assembly was called the comitia centuria'ta. 

124. Government under the Republic. — When the Roman 
people expelled Tarquinius Superbus, the last of the kings, they 
set up a republic (509 b.c.) and chose two consuls to wield the 
power formerly held by the king. These consuls were chosen 
not for life as the kings had been, but for one year only. 

A dictator was sometimes appointed in time of great danger. 
His appointment was for six months only, but during that period 
he had absolute control of the city and the army. 

The Roman Senate under the republic was composed of about 
300 men, and at first all the senators were heads of patrician fami- 



Government of Early Rome 



143 



lies. The Senate gained greatly by the downfall of the kingdom 
and it really became the chief governing power of Rome. In 
later times it was made up chiefly of ex-consuls and other ex- 
magistrates. The members served for life, and this fact gave 
them a great advantage over the consuls, who, serving for one 
year, could be called to account at the end of their term of service. 
The principal assembly under the early republic was the 
comitia centuriata. It met on the Campus Martius (mar'shi-us), 




Fabrician Bridge over the Tiber 

The first bridge across the Tiber at Rome, built of wood, was the one defended by 

Horatius. Many bridges were built later, but the Fabrician, which unites the city 

with an island in the Tiber, is the oldest stone bridge in the world still in use. 

outside the city near the Tiber, where it elected the officers and 
passed laws, but its laws had to be ratified by the Senate before 
they became effective. 

In later times, a new office was created called the censorship ; 
two censors were chosen to fill this office for a term of five years. 
The censors had even greater power than the consuls. Every 
fifth year they numbered the people. All citizens were required 
to appear before them and under oath to tell the number of their 
children and their slaves and the amount of their property. After 



144 Ancient Rome 

the census was taken the censors arranged for the great ceremony 
of purification. In large numbers the people assembled for this 
purpose once in five years on the Campus Martius. Here they 
were drawn up in order of battle and around them were led three 
animals, a bull, a ram, and a hog. These animals were then slain 
and their blood sprinkled on the people. Thus they were purified 
and reconciled to the gods. 

The censors had the power to degrade a senator by striking 
his name from the list of senators, or to deprive a citizen of his 
vote. They were the guardians of public morals ; they rebuked . 
indigence in one and extravagance in another. The censors were, 
in fact, the masters of Rome. 

125. Rise of the Plebs. — At first the great majority of the 
plebeians (sec. 122) were poor and lived outside the city. They 
served in the wars under patrician officers. Often their little 
farms were overrun by hostile armies while the patrician homes 
were protected by the city walls. If new lands were conquered 
they were divided among the patricians, and the plebs got 
nothing. On returning from the wars the plebs, finding their 
farms devastated, were obliged to borrow money from the patri- 
cians, and the interest rates were so high that often they could 
not pay. Then they were thrown into prison for debt, often into 
a dungeon. 

At length the plebs felt that they could endure the oppression 
no longer, so they decided to leave Rome and found a city of their 
own. The legend tells us that they withdrew in large numbers 
to a hill on the banks of the A'nio, a little river that flows into the 
Tiber a few miles above Rome. This hill was ever after called 
Mons Sa'cer, Sacred Mountain. But the patricians persuaded 
them to return by promising to release all prisoners for debt and 
agreeing that tribunes, to be elected by the plebs, should have 
the power to forbid or " veto " unjust acts of a magistrate. This 
event took place, the Romans said, in 494 B.C., not long after the 
last king was driven out and the republic founded. 

For more than a century there was occasional strife between 



The Roman Army " 145 

these two classes. One of the tribunes, Licin'ius, secured the 
passage of a law by which the amount of land and the number of 
slaves that could be held by any man was limited. The purpose 
of the law was to relieve the oppression of the poor. This law 
dates from 367 b.c. It was known as the Licinian law. The ple- 
beians were made eligible to one office after another, until at last 
they won a complete victory. They came to be recognized as 
equal to the patricians and the two formed one people. A new 
assembly, the comitia tribu'ta, in which all the people voted by dis- 
tricts or "local tribes," took over most of the lawmaking power 
from the comitia centuriata. 

126. Service in the Army. — Rome was a nation of warriors. 
The army was the strength and support of the government. 
Every Roman citizen between the ages of seventeen and forty-five 
years was obliged to serve in the army if needed. It was said that 
each citizen owed his country twenty campaigns. A campaign 
in the early period was usually short, perhaps only a sudden 
dash into the territory of a neighboring city-state ; but later a 
campaign was often long and arduous. 

A soldier had to furnish his own arms and all equipment, and 
before the year 402 B.C. he served without pay. The poor were 
therefore shut out from the army. The old Roman considered it 
not a hardship, but a privilege, to serve his country in war. WTien 
an army was to be enrolled the citizens were called to assemble 
at the Capitol. As many as needed were then selected and those 
chosen took an oath to obey the general, to follow wherever he 
might lead, and to remain faithful until released from the oath. 

127. Divisions of the Army ; Exercises. — A Roman army was 
divided into legions. A legion was composed of 4200 men, 3000 
of whom were heavy-armed troops and 1200 light-armed. The 
legions were made up chiefly of Roman citizens, but in later 
times they did not constitute the entire army of the republic, 
nor even half of it. To them were added the allies, as the subject 
peoples were called, and the allied troops, horse and foot, were 
generally more numerous than the citizen troops; 



146 Ancient Rome 

On the Campus Martius the young soldiers would gather in 
great numbers to exercise their bodies and drill in preparation for 
service in the field. They would run and leap, throw the javelin, 
and often swim across the Tiber. 

128. The Army in the Field. — The Roman soldier in active 
warfare wore a brass helmet on his head, carried a shield on his 
left arm, a coat of mail on his breast, and wore greaves on his legs. 
These were his defensive armor. His weapons were a short sword 
and often a javelin and a long lance. In addition to all these he 
carried utensils and rations for seventeen days. His entire burden 
was about sixty pounds. 

When the army encamped for the night a square inclosure was 
measured off and around it a deep ditch was dug by the men. 
Into the bank of loose earth, which was thrown inward, stakes 
were driven. Protected by this moat and palisade, an army 
was safe from sudden attack by an enemy. 

A legion was divided into companies called " man'iples " (from 
manus, hand, and plenus, full, a handful), each composed of 60 
or 120 men. When engaged in battle the maniples were arranged 
in three lines with spaces between them. The front line, com- 
posed of younger men, engaged the enemy first. If defeated, it 
fell back and the second line rushed to the front, and in turn the 
third, which was made up of the best men of the army. 

The discipline in a Roman army was very strict. The com- 
manding general had power of life and death over all his men. 
A soldier who deserted was put to death if caught. He was bound 
to a post by the lictors and after being beaten with rods his head 
was cut off. If a body of troops deserted, they were decimated, 
that is, every tenth man was put to death, and the rest were forced 
to camp outside the palisade and to live on coarse barley bread. 

After the Romans had conquered large territories, they built 
great military roads so that an army might move quickly from one 
part of their dominions to another. Stone slabs, gravel, and 
cement were used in road building, and so durable were the 
Roman roads that parts of them remain to this day. The most 



The Roman Army 147 




Appian Way and Ruins of the Claudian Aqueduct 

The Appian Way was a military road, built as far as possible in a straight line, cutting 
through hills and bridging ravines. It was constructed somewhat like our macadam 
roads, with a pavement of hard stone resting on several layers of smaller stones set 
in cement. The Claudian aqueduct was one of several conduits which carried water 
from mountain springs to Rome. Built between a.d. 38 and a.d. 52, it was a 
wonderful piece of engineering, the water being carried for miles in a cement-lined 
channel at the top of great arches of stone masonry, some of which are still standing. 

famous of the Roman roads was the Ap'pian Way, which was 
begun by Appius Clau'dius in 312 b.c. It extended from Rome to 
Brundisium (brun-dish'i-um) , in southern Italy, by way of Alba 
Longa and Cap'ua. 

129. Rewards of Military Service. — In the early period the Ro- 
man soldier served without pay and furnished his own equipment, 
as we have seen. Later he received only a small salary, but there 
were other possible rewards that encouraged him to put forth his 
best efforts. There were banners, ornaments, and crowns of 
different sorts awarded for exceptional valor. One of the most 
highly prized, given for the saving of a comrade's life on the 
battlefield, was a crown of oak leaves called " the civic crown." 

Other rewards, of greater utility, were sums of money and por- 
tions of land where a colony was founded, to say nothing of the 
plunder and booty taken from the enemy. 



148 Ancient Rome 

The greatest of all rewards was the Triumph. After a specially 
successful campaign the Senate would decree a triumph of the 
victorious commander and his army. This consisted of a trium- 
phal march through the city of Rome to the temple of Jupiter 
on the Capitoline hill, where a sacrifice was offered. 

The most important figure in the procession was the com- 
manding general, who rode in a gorgeous chariot of gold, and wore 
a crown of laurel. He was preceded by the senators and magis- 
trates and followed by his army. In these triumphal processions 
were carried all sorts of trophies of victory, including captives 
taken in battle, even kings and commanders of armies. Great 
throngs of people who lined the streets and covered the housetops 
shouted their glad welcome to the returning soldiers and rejoiced 
with them over the victories they had won. 

Questions and Topics. — I. For what is the modern world indebted 
to the Hebrews? the Greelts? the Romans? Describe the Italian 
peninsula. On what ground do we infer that the Greeks and Romans 
were descended from the same race ? Tell what you can of the Etrus- 
cans. Relate some of the legends of early Rome. What is the differ- 
ence between legend and history? 

II. How does the Roman religion compare with that of Greece? 
How did March and January come to be so named? What funda- 
mental difference between the religion of the Romans and that of our 
own times? Of whom did a Roman family consist? What was the 
father's authority? Compare the state of woman in Rome and in 
Athens. What did Roman children learn at school? Which is more 
important, learning to read and write, or learning morals and obedience? 

III. What sort of body was the Roman Senate? How did the 
assembly of the people compare with your state legislature ? What 
were the powers of consuls? the dictator? the censor? How did the 
Romans take a census? How do we and how often? Who were the 
plebs? the patricians? What class of Roman people served in the 
army? Describe a Roman camp. How did the Romans build roads? 
Does it pay to build expensive roads? Why? Name the rewards 
of Roman military service. Describe a Roman triumph. 

For Further Reading. — Guhl and Koner, Life of the Greeks and 
Romans. Fowler, City-State of the Greeks and Romans. Abbott, 
Roman Political Institutions. 



CHAPTER X 
ROMAN CONQUESTS 

I. Conquest of Italy 

130. War with the ^quians. — There was in Rome a temple 
to the double faced god Janus (sec. 120). The gates of this tem- 
ple remained open while the city was at war, and were closed in 
time of peace. In five centuries these gates were closed but once, 
and then only for a few years. More than two hundred years 
were required for the conquest of Italy. Only a brief space in this 
book can be given to these Italian wars. 

The war with the iE'quians is remembered because of the story 
of Cincinna'tus. The ^Equians (an Italian people living on the 
upper Anio River) were sorely pressing the Roman army, which 
had been surrounded and was in danger of capture (458 B.C.). 
One of the consuls hastened to the Senate and suggested that 
a dictator be appointed. Who should it be? Cincinnatus, the 
veteran of many wars. The Senate so decreed, and messengers 
were sent to find Cincinnatus. They found him at work on his 
little four-acre farm across the Tiber. Hastening to the city, the 
old hero raised an army, went against the enemy, won a complete 
victory, returned to the city, and was ready to go back to his farm 
sixteen days after he had left it. 

This story belongs to the legendary period and can hardly be 
accepted as historic. 

131. Burning of Rome by the Gauls. — A stream of Gauls had 
poured through the Alpine passes into the Po Valley, which be- 
came known as Cisal'pine Gaul. From here they advanced into 
Etruria and threatened Rome. They were roving barbarians 
whose chief business was war. It was said that their harsh 

149 



15° Ancient Rome 

music, when they marched, filled the air with a horrible din. I_ 
the year 390 b.c. they advanced on Rome and utterly defeated 
a Roman army that came out to meet them. Entering the city, 
they sacked and burned it, except the citadel on the Capitoline 
hill, which they failed to capture. At length Camil'lus, a famous 
commander, was made dictator, and he succeeded in driving the 
Gauls from Rome. The city was soon rebuilt, and it was not 
long before it became again the leading city of Italy. 

132. The Samnite Wars. — Sam'nium was a mountainous 
country of central Italy, east of Latium. Its people, called 
Samnites (sam'nits), were hardy mountaineers of the Italian race, 
brave ajid strong in battle. Trouble arose between Rome and 
Samnium, war broke out, and continued for half a century (343- 
290 B.C.). Owing to the intervals of peace this long contest was 
divided into the First, Second, and Third Samnite Wars. 

The most memorable event of these wars was the entrapping 
and capture by the Samnites of a whole Roman army of 40,000 
men at the Caudine (kd'dini) Forks, a pass in the Apennines 
(321 B.C.). The entire army was deprived of its arms and obhged 
to pass under the yoke,^ the most humiliating thing that could 
come to a Roman soldier. The Romans, however, soon re- 
covered from this disaster, raised new armies, and when peace 
was proclaimed in 290 b.c. Samnium was made a dependency of 
Rome. 

133- Tarentum and Pyrrhus. — After the close of the long 
wars with Samnium, Rome soon became supreme in all central 
and southern Italy, except that Taren'tum, a fine Greek city, 
was still free. A quarrel soon arose and Rome declared war 
on Tarentum. The people of that city called on Pyrrhus to aid 
them against the all-conquering City of the Seven Hills. Pyrrhus 
was king of Epirus, the region west of Macedonia, and was a 
kinsman of Alexander the Great. Anxious for conquest, the 

1 For diacritical marks, see first page of the index. 

2 A yoke was made of three spears, two set upright in the ground and a third laid 
across the top. 



I 



Conquest of Italy 



151 



king readily responded and soon landed at Tarentum with 25,000 
men and a number of elephants (280 B.C.). 

At the battle of Heracle'a the Roman legions were to meet the 
Macedonian phalanx for the first time. The Romans fought 
with their usual bravery and slew great numbers of the Greeks, 
but when Pyrrhus at the right moment charged with his elephants, 
the Romans fled, like frightened quail, in all directions. They 




Romans Compelling Captives to Pass under the Yoke 
Our English word subjugate is derived from the Latin words sub, under, and jugum, yoke. 

could fight men, on foot or on horseback, but these fearful pachy- 
derms were too much for them. 

Pyrrhus was a very able warrior, a man of fine personality 
and generous spirit. Again he met the Romans in battle and 
defeated them, but his losses were so heavy that he exclaimed 
that another such victorj^ would ruin him. We still speak of a 
victory that is too dearly bought as a " Pyrrhic victory." In a 
third battle he was defeated and soon thereafter he returned to 
his own country. This left Tarentum without adequate defense, 
and three years later (272 b.c.) the city surrendered to Rome. 

134. Government of United Italy. — After Tarentum had 
yielded, Roman authority was undisputed in all Italy from the 



152 Ancient Rome 

Apennines and the little river Ru'bicon, just south of the Po 
Valley, to the farthest shores of the peninsula. 

The people of Italy were now divided into two classes — the 
Roman citizens and the allies or foreigners. 

The allies, who comprised the majority of the people of Italy, 
had no rights of citizenship. They were permitted to retain their 
local government and were not required to pay tribute. But they 
were not allowed to wage war, to coin money, or to have any 
foreign relations, and moreover they were required to furnish 
men for the Roman army and ships for the navy. 

Two things are specially noticeable in Rome's occupation and 
government of Italy at this time : 

1. Her system of governing her cities and allies, permitting each 
to govern itself while owing allegiance to a larger union, was a 
striking model of our own American federal government of to-day. 
Our forefathers, in forming our Union, used the same great principle 
of federation that was employed by ancient Rome. There was, 
however, one great difference : the allies were not represented in 
the central government ; the city of Rome was the mistress of 
Italy. 

2. However we may deplore the domination of a strong state 
over weak ones, we must agree that the condition of the people 
of Italy was far better after the Roman conquest than before, 
as it put a stop to their incessant wars with one another. A 
similar instance is found in the occupation of India by England. 
Before that occupation the people of India were constantly fight- 
ing one another ; since then they have been comparatively peace- 
ful. 

II. The Punic Wars (264-146 b.c.) 

135. Carthage. — The city of Carthage was founded by the 
Phoenicians about 850 b.c. It was situated in the northern- 
most part of Africa. According to the legend the founder was 
Queen Dido, a daughter of a king of Tyre. As the centuries 
passed Carthage grew into an empire, one of the strongest of 



I 



The Punic Wars 153 

antiquity, and far surpassed the motherland from which she had 
sprung. Her high-breasted ships plowed the Mediterranean 
from shore to shore and swept through the Strait of Gibraltar 
into the Atlantic Ocean. In all the ancient world there was no 
prouder city than Carthage. Her government was similar to 
that of Rome, except that it was less democratic. Her religion 
was the religion of Ba'al worship, borrowed from Phoenicia. 

136. Carthage and Rome. — The two great powers of the 
Mediterranean were Carthage and Rome. For centuries they 
scarcely knew each other. Then for a time they were friendly, 
but at last they came into deadly conflict. The two rival nations 
were nearly equal in strength, each controlling about five million 
population. The strength of Carthage lay in her wealth and her 
sea power ; the strength of Rome lay in her sturdy citizenship 
and the efficiency of her army. Carthage had greater leaders 
than Rome, but her armies were mercenary and wanting in the 
burning patriotism that characterized the men of Rome. 

Rome was without a navy ; Carthage controlled the Medi- 
terranean, and her people boasted that a Roman scarcely dared 
wash his hands in the sea without her consent. But such a con- 
dition was not to continue. After the first war broke out, the 
Romans found a stranded Carthaginian ship and, taking it as a 
model, built a fleet within a few months. While it was building 
they had their " sailors " practice by sitting on benches on shore 
and rowing in the sand. Strange to say, the Romans won in 
their first sea fight with Carthage. 

It was inevitable that these two rival powers should come into 
conflict for the leadership in Mediterranean lands. Beginning 
in 264 B.C., they engaged in mortal combat and continued, with 
intervals of peace, for 118 years, till one of the great rivals utterly 
crushed and annihilated the other. This long contest is known 
as the First, Second, and Third Punic Wars. The word Punic 
means Phoenician. 

137. The First Punic War (264-241 b.c). — The island of 
Sicily is like a great stepping stone in the Mediterranean between 

EL. M. T. II . 



154 



Ancient Rome 



southern Italy and the African shore, at the narrowest part d 
that great sea. Sicily was the prize of the First Punic War, 
The armies of the two cities met first in this island, but the Romans 
later carried the war into Africa. Reg'ulus, one of the consuls, 





A Roman Trireme (Reconstruction) 

The trireme was planned for fighting at close quarters. The bow was strongly built, 
to withstand the shock when its powerful metal ram pierced the side of an enemy ship. 
The ram protruded from below the raised deck or castle tower, at the front, the part 
of a ship now known as the forecastle. Sometimes the warship had one saU, often 
two or more. Back of the tower was a long deck for light-armed soldiers, with places 
for the oarsmen below. The rowers were arranged about as in the Greek trireme 
(sees. 95 and 98) . Near the stern was a deckhouse for the captain, with seats for the 
steersmen who guided the ship with sweeps hanging one from each side. In front of 
the stem post a carved ornament, the "goose-head," symbolized the floating powers 
of the ship. In later times, even down to the nineteenth century, vessels with 
several banks of oars, called galleys, were rowed by captives and prisoners known as 

galley slaves. 

landed on the African coast with two legions and laid waste the 
country. Later he was defeated and taken prisoner. 

For some years Regulus was held a prisoner. At length when 
the Carthaginians wished to make peace they sent Regulus to 
Rome on his promise that he would return to Carthage in case 
the war continued. Regulus proceeded to Rome and persuaded 



The Punic Wars 155 

the Senate to continue the war and not to accept the ofifer of the 
Carthaginians. He then kept his promise and returned a prisoner 
to Carthage in spite of the pleadings and tears of his family and 
friends. It was said that he was put to a cruel death on his re- 
turn to Carthage. This story may not be true, but it illustrates 
the lofty patriotism of the Roman people. 

The war dragged on for many years. A great leader arose in 
Carthage, named Hamil'car Barca. For six years, with a small 
army, this man held Rome at bay in southern Sicily, defeating 
every army sent against him. But the Romans defeated their 
enemy on the sea, and Carthage was forced to sue for peace. 

It was granted on hard terms. Sicily was to belong to Rome 
and thus that island became the first of Roman provinces. Car- 
thage was required to pay Rome 3200 talents (nearly $4,000,000) 
in the course of ten years and to release all prisoners. Thus 
ended the first of the Punic Wars. 

138. Between the Two Wars ; the Flaminian Way. — The 
First Punic War, twenty-three years in duration, was followed 
by twenty-three years of peace. But they were years of great 
activity in Rome and Carthage. It was clearly foreseen that 
war would come again. It was at this time that Rome extended 
her power into the Po Valley. The Roman leader was Ga'ius 
Flamin'ius, a tribune of the people and later consul, one of the 
greatest statesmen of his time. He conquered the Gauls and 
extended the Roman power to the base of the Alps (222 B.C.). 

Flaminius projected the great road that was given his name, 
the Flaminian Way. It extended from Rome across the peninsula 
to the Adriatic Sea and far into the north. For the movement of 
armies and supplies in time of war and of food supplies in time of 
peace this great highway, like the Appian Way extending south- 
east (sec. 128), was of priceless value to Rome. 

139. Hamilcar and Hannibal. — The two greatest names in 
Carthaginian history are the names of Hamilcar and Han'nibal, 
father and son. These two commanding figures remind us of 
Philip and Alexander of Macedonia. Philip was the strongest 



156 



Ancient Rome 



character that had ever risen in Macedonia, until his fame was 
far outshone by that of his more famous son. Likewise the 
Carthaginian Hamilcar, powerful leader that he was, cannot be 
mentioned in the same class with the marvelous youth on whose 
shoulders his mantle fell. 




50 100 

— Hannibal's Route 



The Punic Wars 



The one great aim and purpose in the life of Hamilcar was to 
defeat and humble the city on the Tiber. It is said that he took 
his little son Hannibal, when the boy was nine years of age, to 
the altar of the gods and had him solemnly swear eternal enmity 
against Rome. Hannibal kept his oath and he became the 
greatest military commander of antiquity, not even excepting 
Alexander the Great. At the age of twenty-six, his father having 
been slain in battle, Hannibal was chosen commander. He 
accepted the commission and henceforth he was the soul of the 
Carthaginian army. 



The Punic Wars 157 

As the historian Polyb'ius informs us, Hannibal was a man of 
dauntless courage, of the utmost prudence and patience. He 
endured hunger and cold alike, he worked day and night, and 
slept only when there was nothing else to do. All his energies 
were bent to the one great purpose of his life, the humiliation of 
Rome. To provoke that city to war he besieged and captured 
the Spanish town Sagun'tum, which was in alliance with Rome. 

The Roman Senate sent Quintus Fa'bius to Carthage to demand 
that Hannibal be surrendered. The demand was refused. 
Fabius held his toga in a double fold and cried, " I give you 
peace or war. Which will you have? " " Which you will," was 
the answer. " Then it is war," he declared, shaking out the fold 
of his toga to mean war. 

140. Beginnings of the Second Punic War ; Hannibal Crosses 
the Alps (218 B.C.). — The great Carthaginian commander de- 
termined to carry the war into Italy. But Carthage was weaker 
than Rome on the sea, so he led his army from Spain into Italy 
by land. With 50,000 foot, 9000 cavalry, and 37 war elephants, 
he set out on his perilous journey. The army had to encounter 
the wild tribes of the mountains, terrific winter storms of the 
Alps, and vast fields of snow. Hundreds, perhaps thousands, of 
the men and horses lost their balance and rolled down the mighty 
precipices to death. When Hannibal reached the Po Valley, 
half his army had perished. The Romans were astonished at 
the sudden arrival of Hannibal in the north. The Roman consul 
Scipio (sip'i-o) met the invaders on the Tici'nus, a branch of 
the Po, and was defeated. A little later another Roman army, 
led by another consul, was utterly crushed on the banks of the 
river Tre'bia. The Gauls, who had recently been conquered by 
Rome, now joined Hannibal and added many thousands of men 
to his army. The next year (217 b.c.) the popular statesman, 
Flaminius, was defeated and slain and his army was annihilated 
at the battle of Lake Trasime'nus, in Etruria. 

141. Fabius ; the Battle of Cannae. — The disaster at Trasi- 
menus caused great lamentation in Rome. Fabius was now 



158 



Ancient Rome 



I 



appointed dictator. His policy was to annoy Hannibal and wear 
l.im out without meeting him in any great battle. This he did 
for many months, until the Roman people grew impatient with 
his methods and clamored for his recall. His policy of caution is 
known as the Fabian policy. 

In 216 B.C. the Romans sent an army of 80,000 men against 
Hannibal, whose army numbered 50,000. The Roman army, 
commanded by the consul Varro, met the Carthaginians at 
Cannae, in southern Italy. The result was apparently decisive. 
The great Carthaginian commander crushed and almost annihi- 
lated this mighty Roman army. The Romans were huddled 
together like sheep and cut down by thousands by Hannibal's 
Numidian cavalry. 

The fortunes of Rome were now at the lowest ebb. The 
Romans were overwhelmed with grief when the news of Cannae 
flew to the city. Some of their allies turned against them, and it 
was feared that Hannibal would march upon Rome. Hannibal, 
however, could not move at once to invest the city ; the Romans 
became more calm, and again, as in the earlier war, their patriot- 
ism rose to its best. They refused to despair ; they were deter- 
mined to fight on. Soon the tide of war turned in their favor. 

The decisive victory of the Romans came with the destruction 
of Has'drubal and his army at the battle of the Metaurus. Has- 
drubal was Hannibal's brother. Eluding the Roman armies in 

Spain, he crossed the 
Alps as Hannibal had 
done and appeared in 
the Po Valley. On the 
banks of the Metau'rus 
River near the coast of 
the Adriatic he met a 
Roman army, and the 
battle there fought (207 
B.C.) has been named one 
Battle of the Metaurus of the decisive battles of 



<Z* 



' ; h'etreatof / / 
1 Caiialrt) ^/ 



Cavalry /(jf" 



tDczi[i:]ti3C]fa 



',' HASDRUBAL'S ARMY ^ 



,0 CD CD 1=) [=zi cm C 



i'^ 



J^ieXihantS 



ROMAN ARm 



The Punic Wars 159 

the world, because it marked the turning of the tide in the Second 
Punic War.^ Hasdrubal was slain and his army was annihilated. 

Hannibal eagerly awaited the coming of his brother, but the 
first news he received came to him when his brother's head was 
thrown into the Carthaginian camp. Hannibal saw that his 
career was doomed, and he exclaimed, " O Carthage, I see thy 
fate ! " 

142. The Battle of Zama ; End of the War. — The Romans 
even now were unwilling to attack Hannibal in southern Italy, 
but they found another way to get him out of the country. A 
Roman army was sent to Africa to threaten Carthage. The 
plan was effective. Carthage recalled Hannibal to defend the 
city. Rome had a splendid army commanded by the younger 
Scipio, son of the consul whom Hannibal had defeated at the 
Ticinus. Hannibal had an inferior army. The two came to- 
gether in the battle of Za'ma, near Carthage, and Hannibal, for 
the first and only time in his life, suffered defeat (202 B.C.). Scipio, 
for this splendid victory, was named by the Roman Senate Scipio 
Africa'nus. . 

Carthage could do nothing more after the defeat of Hannibal's 
army at Zama. For several years past everything had gone 
wrong with the Carthaginians. Hannibal's brother had been 
defeated and slain in Italy; Capua and Syracuse, which had gone 
over to Carthage, were retaken by Rome. Spain also was lost, 
and now added to all these disasters was the defeat of the great 
commander himself at Zama. Carthage sued for peace, and Rome 
granted her prayer on merciless terms. 

Carthage was required (i) to pay Rome 200 talents ($250,000) 
a year for fifty years ; (2) to give up all claim to Spain and the 
islands of the Mediterranean ; (3) to destroy all her ships except 
ten small ones ; and (4) to promise not to make war without the 
consent of Rome. 

With a heavy heart Hannibal accepted these terms and set 
about building up his ruined city. But some years later Rome, 

^ See Creasy's Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World. 



i6o 



Ancient Rome 



% 



in the belief tliat Hannibal was plotting another war, demanded 
his surrender. He fled into Syria and later to Asia Minor, and 
finally, it was said, committed suicide. Such was the end of 
Hannibal — the greatest commander in the history of the world, 
unless we except Napoleon Bonaparte. 




The Tortoise Formation — the Ancient Forerunner of the 
Modern "Tank" 

Posed by F.nglish guardsmen acting the part of Roman soldiers. When fortifications 
were attacked, the heavy-armed soldiers held their shields arranged in a formation 
known as the tcsludo, or tortoi.se, for protection from hostile weapons. 

143. The Third Punic War (149-146 B.C.). — Half a century 
passed after Zama. Carthage was again growing rich, and Rome 
was getting jealous. Rome was also becoming more covetous 
and more cruel. Nothing was more disturbing to Roman serenity 
than the growing prosperity of the African city. Even Ca'to the 
Censor, known for his honesty and simplicity of life, declared 
in the Senate, at the end of every speech he made, " Delenda est 



Conquest of Mediterranean Lands i6i 

Cartha'go " (Carthage must be destroyed). This was the senti- 
ment of the whole Roman people, but a pretext had to be found 
for attacking the rival city. It came when Carthage, in self- 
defense but without the consent of Rome, sent a force against 
the Numidians. 

This was enough. Rome was ready now to go to any length 
to destroy her prosperous rival. She demanded that Carthage 
deliver to Rome 300 of the children of her nobles as hostages — 
and it was done. Then she demanded that the Carthaginians 
give up all their arms. Even this was complied with. Finally, 
Rome decreed that Carthage itself be abandoned and that the 
people build another city ten miles from the sea. 

This cruel demand was too much. The people saw their mis- 
take in having given up the hostages and their arms. They 
resolved to resist, to fight to the bitter end. The gates of the 
city were closed, and men and women worked day and night 
manufacturing arms. Soon the Roman army came, led by 
Scipio i^milia'nus, adopted grandson of Scipio Africanus, the 
hero of Zama. The siege 'was long and deadly. The Cartha- 
ginians perished in unnumbered thousands. No people ever 
defended their homes with greater heroism. But at last, after 
a siege of many months, the Romans scaled the walls and took 
the city by storm. The remaining inhabitants were made slaves, 
the city was burned to the ground, and the spot on which had 
stood this greatest of Phoenician cities, the wealthiest city of 
antiquity, became a scene of ruin and desolation. 

in. Conquest of Mediterranean Lands 

144. Motives of Conquest. — The City of the Seven Hills 
conquered the world. But it was not through any purpose or 
design that Rome came to be the ruler of nearly all civilized 
nations. One conquest led to another, and some of her wars 
were not of her own making. One incentive of warfare was that 
a magistrate in command of the army would wage war in order 



1 62 Ancient Rome 

to win popularity and perhaps secure the honors of a triumph, 
the prize of all prizes to the Roman commander. Many of 
the leading statesmen of Rome were first victorious generals. 

Again, nearly all classes in Rome had an interest in conquest. 
Merchants and bankers found new fields to exploit in the con- 
quered lands, and the soldiers shared in the booty captured in 
war. Rome, therefore, without any plan for conquering the 
world, simply continued her campaigns, for glory and for profit, 
until there was nothing else worth conquering and she was mis- 
tress of the world. 

145. The Macedonian Wars. — On the death of Alexander the 
Great his mighty empire was divided, as we have seen (sec. 115), 
among his generals. They set lip various kingdoms, as Egypt, 
Syria, and Macedonia. These all eventually came under the 
sway of Rome, and the first to yield was Macedonia. 

There were three Macedonian wars, beginning in 215 B.C. and 
ending in 168 B.C., covering a period of 47 years. In this series of 
wars Rome not only subdued all Macedonia and later made it a 
Roman province, but defeated Syria also. It was in 190 B.C. that 
for the first time the Roman legions fought on the soil of Asia and 
here they proved their superiority, as they had done in Europe. 

146. Final Conquest of Greece (146 b.c). — At the time of 
the Third Macedonian War at least a thousand of the leading 
Greeks were forcibly carried to Italy, and among them was the 
famous historian Polybius. After sixteen years they were re- 
leased and, returning to Greece, led the Greeks to revolt against 
Roman oppression. The revolt had its center at Corinth. The 
city was soon enveloped with a Roman army under the consul 
Mum'mius. The horrors and cruelties of the destruction of 
Carthage were equaled, if not surpassed, at Corinth. The city 
was utterly destroyed, the men were massacred and the women 
and children sold into slavery. Many treasures of art and sculp- 
ture were destroyed, and many were carried to Rome. The 
singular taste of the consul Mummius, as an art critic, was shown 
by his warning to the sailors that if they destroyed any of the 



Conquest of Mediterranean Lands 163 

fine paintings or statues, " they must replace them with others 
just as good." 

It will be noticed that this year, which marks the end of Greek 
freedom, 146 b.c, is the same as that in which Carthage was 
destroyed — a memorable year in the history of Rome. 

147. Other Conquests. — During the second century before our 
era the power of Rome had extended rapidly beyond the sea. In 
addition to the acquisitions already mentioned, Illyr'icum, a coun- 
try stretching along the Adriatic northwest of Macedonia, became 
a Roman province about the time of the Second Macedonian War. 

Per'gamum, a flourishing country in western Asia Minor, be- 
came a Roman province in 135 B.C. This was a peaceful ac- 
quisition, as the dying king of the country bequeathed his kingdom 
to the Roman people. It was the first Roman province in Asia. 

The one spot in the world that Rome found most difficult to 
conquer was Spain, which had been formed into two Roman 
provinces. Here the mountain tribes fought like demons and 
destroyed one Roman army after another. The women fought 
along with the men and sometimes to escape capture they would 
kill their children and themselves. Viri'athus in the western part, 
now Portugal, proved an unconquerable foe. For nine years 
he held the mountain fastnesses and defeated every force sent 
against him. It was only by assassination that the Romans 
managed to get rid of him and to conquer his tribe. 

Numantia (nu-man'shi-a) was a Spanish town that fought the 
Romans heroically and desperately for ten years, defeating 
several Roman armies. At last it was captured by Scipio 
^milianus (133 b.c.) and, like Carthage and Corinth, was blotted 
from the face of the earth. As the town was about to be taken 
the people fell to committing suicide and there were but fifty left 
to grace the triumph of the conqueror in the streets of Rome. 

Side Talk 

Hannibal. — Most writers of ancient history agree that Hannibal was the 
ablest commander of men known to history. His holding together in Italy 



1 64 Ancient Rome 

a great army composed of men of many nationalities and languages, often in 
a condition bordering on want, for many long years, indicates a strength of 
leadership unrivaled. Alexander the Great had a splendid army of picked 
troops and his enemies were for the most part effeminate Asiatics. Caesar 
with the choicest Roman legions won his battles against the half-civilized 
Gauls. Napoleon, who comes nearest to measuring up to the standard of 
the Carthaginian, had a great nation at his back and his army was stimu- 
lated by the enthusiasm of the Revolution. On the other hand, Hannibal's 
army was largely composed of barbarians — Gauls, Spaniards, Libyans, and 
Numidians — who had no quarrel with Rome and little interest in Carthage. 
Their allegiance rested on their devotion to their wonderful commander. 
Moreover, Hannibal was always cramped by want of support from home, 
and his conflict was against the greatest military nation in the world. In 
spite of all this, Hannibal's transcendent genius was such that, with this 
motley army, he grappled with Rome on her own soU, marched up and 
down the Italian peninsula at will for fifteen years, defeating every army 
that dared to measure swords with him. In the history of human warfare 
there is no other record to compare with this. 

Questions and Topics. — ^I. What can you tell of the two-faced 
Janus? of Cincinnatus? Who were the Samnites? How did Rome 
govern the rest of Italy? What principle did our government adopt 
from ancient Rome? 

II. Tell what you know of Carthage. Compare Rome and Carthage. 
What was the prize of the First Punic War? Do you admire the action 
of Regulus? How did the Romans make roads? Describe. the Fla- 
minian Way. What oath did Hannibal take as a boy? Describe Hanni- 
bal's passage of the Alps; Cannae. What is meant by the Fabian 
policy? How was Hannibal at last overcome? What were the per- 
manent effects of the Punic Wars? 

HI. What were the motives of Roman conquest? Describe the 
destruction of Corinth. Why were the Greeks not able to stand before 
the Romans in war? 

Events and Dates. — End of the Samnite War, 290 B.C. War with 
Pyrrhus, 280 B.C. Italy united under the government of Rome. 
First Punic War begins, 264 B.C. Hannibal crosses the Alps, 218 B.C. 
Battle of Metaurus, 207 b.c. Carthage destroyed, end of Third Punic 
War, 146 B.C. Final conquest of Greece, 146 b.c 

For Further Reading. — Botsford, History of Rome. Dodge, Hanni- 
bal: History of the Art of War. Bryant, Short History of Rome for 
Schools. Morey, Ancient Peoples. 



CHAPTER XI 
LIFE AND SOCIETY IN ROME 

I. Change in Roman Customs 

148. Effect of the Conquests. — In the old days of the early 
republic the Roman people were a nation of small farmers, crude 
and simple and contented. Their one-story and one-room farm 
houses dotted the plains and hillsides of Latium and Etruria. 
They wore coarse, loose clothing and sandals, men and women 
alike, without head covering or stockings. They raised grain 
and live stock, and many of the hills were covered with olive trees. 

Cato the Censor was a type of the old-time Roman. He worked 
and ate with his slaves ; he bitterly upbraided the Scipios for 
their extravagance, and all his life he fought against the changes 
that were steadily taking place in Roman customs. Another 
of this type was Cu'rius, commander in the Samnite Wars. One 
day as he sat on a bench eating beans from a wooden bowl, he 
was approached by envoys of the enemy and offered a bribe. 
" Go and tell the Samnites," he said, " that Curius prefers com- 
manding those who have gold to having it himself." In the city 
were many industries, but life was almost as simple there as in 
the rural districts. 

Two hundred years of foreign conquest wrought a wonderful 
change in Roman life and manners. Wealth flowed into the city 
from the conquered provinces and demoralized the people. The 
small farms and simple rural homes were replaced by great estates 
and costly palaces. The houses of the rich were adorned with 
mosaics and frescoes and furnished with baths. The coarse and 
frugal meal of the early farmer was replaced by feasts of the 
rarest dainties and delicacies from all parts of the earth. So 

165 





h ffi f] 



q'> a 



•t! O 




i66 



Change in Roman Customs 167 

much for the rich, but the poor became poorer. The long ravages 

of Hannibal in Italy ruined thousands of farmers. The wars in 

I Spain and the East took great numbers of farmers from their 

I homes for years at a time, and when they returned many of them 

I found their homes broken up. 

i The patricians and plebs of the olden times had merged into 
i one class as we have seen (sec. 125). But after the foreign wars 
I other social lines came to be sharply drawn ; there were then 
I four classes of people : 

1. The new Nobility, composed of wealthy men who filled the 
! chief offices, especially the seats of the Senate, and managed the 
j government. 

2. The Equites (ek'wi-tez), or knights, men of large fortunes 
who did not attain senatorial dignity. 

3. The great masses of the people, many of whom were paupers, 
some because they preferred a life of idleness, others because, 
ejected from their farms or discharged from the army, they could 
find no employment. 

4. The slaves, the most numerous class of all. Great numbers 
of captives taken in war were sold into slavery, the usual price 
being from sixty to a hundred dollars. 

149. How Greece Conquered Rome. — As noted above, the 
foreign conquests had for the most part a corrupting effect on the 
Roman people, but here is a notable exception. Thousands of 
Greeks were carried to Italy after the subjugation of their own 
country. The culture, the civilization of the Greeks was far 
superior to that of the Romans. These transported Greeks 
therefore became the teachers and models for the Romans. 

Nothing finer can be said of the Roman people than the fact 
that when they conquered a people with a civilization better than 
their own, they did not attempt to crush and destroy it, they imi- 
tated and absorbed it. Viewed from this standpoint, the con- 
quest of Greece was of vast importance to the future of the world, 
for if Rome was to rule the world, Rome needed to be refined and 
educated, and only the Greeks could accomplish this. 



1 68 Ancient Rome 

It became the fashion for the rich Romans to have Greek tutors 
for their children. Early Roman literature was built upon Greek 
literature. A Greek slave, Androni'cus, translated many Greek 
poems into Latin, and some of these were used in the Roman 
schools. Roman art, sculpture, and architecture were copied 
after Greek models. Thus it will be seen what the poet Horace 
meant when he said that Rome the conqueror was being con- 
quered by the civilization of the Greeks. 

II. Reforms of the Gracchi 

150. Cornelia's Jewels. — One day as the great Scipio Afri- 
canus, the conqueror of Hannibal and the most famous of a famous 
family, sat at a feast, he was approached by friends of a young 
plebeian soldier named Gracchus (grak'us) asking the hand of his 
daughter Cornelia in marriage. Scipio knew young Gracchus to 
be one of the manliest of men and gave his consent. When Scipio 
returned to his home and told his wife that he had bestowed their 
daughter in marriage, she was much disturbed and upbraided him, 
but when he told her that the lucky young man was Gracchus, 
she was pleased and declared that no other man in Rome was 
worthy of such a gift. 

The young couple were married. Years passed and ComeUa 
was a widow, with two little boys. She took great pride in her 
sons and refused many offers of marriage in order to devote her 
time to their education. When some matrons exhibited to her 
their jewels and asked that they might see hers, she pointed t6 
her boys and said, " These are my jewels." 

The elder of the Gracchus brothers was named Tibe'rius, and 
the younger Gaius. As they grew to manhood their mother urged 
them to do something worthy of their country, saying that she 
was known as the daughter of Scipio, but would prefer to be 
known as the mother of the Gracchi. ^ 

151. Tiberius Gracchus and the Agrarian Laws. — Tiberius 
served in the wars in Spain, and as he passed through Etruria his 

1 Gracchi (grak'i) is the plural of Gracchus. 



Reforms of the Gracchi 169 

heart was moved at the great numbers of homeless farmers who 
had been driven from their lands by rich landowners. The owner 
of a little farm would return from a long war in which he had 
faithfully served his country, only to find the farm sold or mort- 
gaged so heavily that he could not pay the debt. He could not 
then find employment, for the work of the rich was done by slaves. 
He could do nothing but go to the city and join the idle crowd of 
paupers or wander about with his family until they starved. 

" The poor have fought to maintain the luxury of the rich," 
declared Tiberius Gracchus, "while they do not possess a clod 
of earth that they may call their own." 

Later Tiberius was elected tribune, and he set himself the task 
of bringing about a greatly needed reform. He determined to re- 
vive the old Licinian law (sec. 125) which forbade any one to 
possess more than 300 acres of the public lands. Such a law 
restricting the ownership of land is called an agra'rian law, from the 
Latin word ager, land. The Licinian law had long been disre- 
garded; the great landlords had immense estates, and large 
numbers of the poor had been driven from their homes. 

Tiberius succeeded in restoring and enforcing this law, but in 
doing so he awakened the implacable hatred of the rich. Most 
of the senators were large landholders, and some of them stirred 
up a riot in which three hundred men were killed. Tiberius 
Gracchus was among the slain (133 b.c). This was the beginning 
of civil war in Rome. During the next century the streets of the 
city were again and again to flow with human blood. 

152. Gaius Gracchus. — A few years later Gains Gracchus 
entered public life as tribune and took up the cause in which his 
brother had given his life. Gaius was perhaps the abler of the 
brothers. He was the greatest orator of his time, and must be 
named among the leading statesmen that Rome ever produced. 
Not only did he aid in carrying out the agrarian law, restored by 
Tiberius ; he also addressed himself to a greater task. 

The Roman Senate, which had almost entire control of the 
government, was a corrupt body, and Gaius determined to weaken 

EL. M. T. 12 



lyo Ancient Rome 

it. He succeeded in taking from the Senate some of its powers 
and in doing so he made that body bitterly hostile to him. There- 
fore when he stood for reelection as tribune the Senate determined 
to defeat him at all hazards. It won the fickle people away from 
him by empty promises, and Gains lost the election. He then 
unwisely resorted to violence. Civil war was the result, and in a 
great riot, 121 b.c, 3000 men lost their lives; among them was 
Gains Gracchus. 

Rome produced no better men than the Gracchi. They died 
in the cause of the downtrodden masses, and though their reforms 
were not permanent, they were long remembered for their noble 
sacrifice. 1 

III. The Roman Provinces 

153- Government of the Provinces. — When Rome conquered 
the rest of Italy the various Italian tribes, though not citizens, 
were made " allies " (sec. 134). They were required to furnish 
ships and soldiers to Rome, but not to pay tribute. It was dif- 
ferent with the provinces. 

The provinces were conquered lands outside Italy. The first 
of the provinces was Sicily, acquired in 241 B.C., at the close of the 
First Punic War. At the time of Tiberius Gracchus there were 
seven Roman provinces and a century later there were seventeen. 1 
These conquered lands were governed by the authority of Rome, 
not for the good of the inhabitants, but for the benefit of the con- 
querors. 

The governor of a province was usually a consul or a praetor 
(judge) whose term of office at Rome had expired. He was then 
called a proconsul or propraetor. The governor had absolute 
power. He had an army which he commanded as he pleased, and 
if he chose to play the tyrant there was none to stay his hand. 

154. Tyranny of the Provincial Governors. — A governor held 
his office usually for one year only. During that year he had to 
make his fortune, and there was nothing modest about the size of it 

1 The provinces in 44 B.C. are shown on the map facing page 177. 



The Roman Provinces 171 

when made. A grasping proconsul (and most of them were 
grasping) had many ways of wringing money from his province. 
A city, for example, would pay him a large sum of money in order 
to be exempt from having soldiers quartered within it. The 
proconsul had the power of life and death, and many a rich man 
paid heavily for exemption from arrest whether he was guilty of 
wrongdoing or not. 

The most notorious of the proconsuls was Verres (ver'ez), 
governor of Sicily (73-71 B.C.). He plundered the people of that 
island to his heart's content. He forced them to give up their 
money and their treasures of art and sculpture, the accumulation 
of centuries of Greek culture. Verres boasted that his fortune 
was so great that if he were put on trial for his extortion he could 
afford to spend two thirds of it in bribing the judges and have an 
abundance left. He was put on trial, and Cicero (sis'er-6), 
Rome's greatest orator, was the prosecutor. Several of Cicero's 
greatest orations were prepared for this trial. The accused was 
found guilty, but fled to a city in southern Gaul and lived in 
luxury for many years on part of his stolen fortune. 

155. Publicans and Bankers. — If the greedy proconsuls left 
anything in the provinces worth gathering in, the publicans and 
bankers sat like cormorants, ready to complete the work of de- 
spoiling the hapless people. 

The publicans were taxgatherers, and to them the proconsul 
would " farm " out the tax districts. A publican would purchase 
from the governor the right to tax a certain district. He there- 
upon enriched himself by gathering from the people far more than 
he had paid for the privilege. The publicans had the authority 
to fix the tax rate, and many of them became tyrants and extor- 
tioners. The proconsul and his army sustained the plundering 
pubhcans. Great numbers of the people were reduced to pov- 
erty through the merciless extortions of the taxgatherers. 

Another class which exploited the provincials was the bankers 
and money changers of Rome. In Rome there was an over- 
abundance of money, gathered from all points of the compass, 



172 Ancient Rome 

as tribute and plunder from the provinces. From this cause 
money was scarce in the provinces, and the interest rates were 
high. The bankers would borrow money in Rome for four or 
five per cent interest and loan it out in the provinces for fifteen, 
twenty, and sometimes even fifty per cent. Not infrequently, 
it happened that a provincial city, after being plundered by the 
Roman armies, found it necessary to raise a loan. It would bor- 
row of the Roman bankers at an excessive rate of interest, and if 
it could not repay, its people were sold into slavery. 

Questions and Topics. — I. What effect had the Roman conquests 
on the Roman people? Who was Cato? (See Cyclopedia.) What were 
the classes of Roman society at this period? What can you tell of the 
influence of the conquered Greeks on their Roman conquerors? Why 
were the Greeks more cultured than the Romans? Write an essay 
showing the contrast. 

II. From what noted family were the Gracchi descended? What 
were the chief reforms of Tiberius Gracchus? of Gains Gracchus? Can 
you name any country where the conditions are similar to the conditions 
in Rome at that time? 

in. In what respects did the government of the conquered Italian 
lands differ from the government of the Roman provinces? Write a 
comparison between the government of the Roman provinces and that 
of the American colonies by England before our Revolutionary War. 

Events and Dates. — Simplicity of Roman life changed to extrav- 
agance through the conquests. The Romans are greatly benefited by 
Greek culture. Death of Tiberius Gracchus, 133 B.C.; of Gaius 
Gracchus, 121 b.c. Government of the provinces. 

For Further Reading. — Morey, Outlines of Roman History. Beesly, 
The Gracchi, Marius and Sulla. Breasted, Ancient Times. Stephenson, 
Public Lands of the Rotnan Republic. 



CHAPTER XII 
THE CENTURY OF C^SAR 

I. Men and Events before the Time of C^sar 

156. The Last Century of the RepubUc. — With the passmg 
of the Gracchi the Roman republic entered on what may be called 
its third period. The first period was characterized by a long 
struggle of the lower classes for political and social rights ; the 
second was the period of conquest, first of Italy, then of other 
Mediterranean lands. The third period, covering the last cen- 
tury of the Roman republic, was characterized by civil wars 
and the struggles of military leaders for personal control.^ 

At the beginning of this century the republic had begun to totter 
on its foundations. The government was in the hands of the 
Senate, and the Senate was venal and corrupt. The people also 
had been corrupted by the spoils of war. The old-time Roman 
virtue was growing rarer and rarer. 

The last century of the republic began with a period of disorder 
and terror, of riot and bloodshed in the streets of Rome. At 
length, however, a strong leader, Pompey the Great, gained con- 
trol of the government, restored order, and brought back a sem- 
blance of the old-time glory of the city. 

157. Pompey the Great. — At this time the Mediterranean 
was aswarm with pirates, bold sea robbers who took advantage 
of the disorder in Rome to plunder the coasts. In 67 B.C. a law 
was passed giving Pompey full control of the Mediterranean coasts 
for a term of three years. The trust was not misplaced. It re- 
quired but forty days for Pompey to clear this great sea of pirates. 

1 Chief among these rival leaders were Ma'rius and Sulla. For many years the 
Roman people were distracted by civil war and the streets of Rome flowed with 
blood, owing to the sordid ambitions of these men. 

173 



174 Ancient Rome 

He then pursued them to their strongholds and quickly subdued 
them. 

The next year Pompey was appointed commander in the East ; 
he left Rome with an army and was absent five years. Every- 
where he was successful. He extended the Roman dominions to 
the valley of the Euphrates. He then led his army to Palestine, 
besieged and captured Jerusalem, the holy city of the Jews, and 
reduced Jude'a to a dependency of Rome (63 B.C.). Some time 
after Pompey returned to Rome he enjoyed a triumph, the most 
splendid in the history of the city. Before his chariot walked 
300 captive princes, and the brass tablets declared that he had 
captured a thousand fortresses, eight hundred ships, and had 
founded thirty-nine cities. 

158. Cicero and Catiline. — While Pompey was absent in the 
East, Rome had a narrow escape from destruction through a vil- 
lainous conspiracy led by Cat'iline. Defeated by Cicero for the 
consulship, Catiline determined to wreak vengeance on the people. 
Gathering about him a crowd of desperate characters, he conspired 
to kill the senators and bum the city, but the plot was discovered 
by Cicero. 

Cicero, whose name as an orator is coupled with that of the 
great Demosthenes, was born in 106 b.c. He won undying fame, 
not only as an orator and statesman, but as a writer whose works 
are read wherever the Latin language is studied. When he un- 
earthed the wicked plot of Catiline, he exposed and denounced 
the conspirators in the Senate in four withering orations. And 
he was quite successful. Some of the leading conspirators were 
captured and put to death. Catiline, escaping from the city, at- 
tempted to flee to Gaul, but was surrounded by an army and killed 
in battle. The city was saved and Cicero was hailed as the Father 
of his Country. 

II. Julius C/esar 

159. Early Life of Caesar. — The greatest Roman who ever 
lived was Gains Julius Caesar. Born of a noble family in 100 B.C., 



Julius Caesar 175 

Csesar spent his early life as a leader among the gay young 
nobles of the capital city. Now and then his future greatness 
was foreshadowed in his youth. On one occasion he was cap- 
tured by Mediterranean pirates. They demanded twenty talents 
for his ransom, but he scornfully told them that they did not know 
the value of their captive and that he would pay them fifty 
talents. During the few months that he was with the pirates he 
entered into their games and made himself agreeable, but he told 
them that the time would come when he would capture and hang 
them. This threat he carried out. 

It is said that when Csesar was about thirty years of age, while 
reading one day about Alexander the Great, he burst into tears, 
saying, " At my age he had conquered the world, and I have done 
nothing." 

160. Cassar and Pompey. — Pompey, as already stated, re- 
ceived a triumph for his victories in the East, but the Senate 
looked with jealous distrust upon its too successful general. 
Cassar had won signal victories in Spain and, returning to Rome, 
was received with equal coldness by the Senate. Pompey and 
Caesar, like the Gracchi, had espoused the cause of the people 
rather than that of the aristocrats. They now joined their inter- 
ests in opposition to the Senatorial party, and with a rich man 
named Crassus formed a party of three leaders called the First 
Triumvirate. Caesar, after serving as consul, was appointed 
proconsul of Cisalpine Gaul (the Po Valley) for five years, after- 
ward increased to ten. It was later arranged that Pompey 
should be elected to the consulship while Caesar should lead an 
army into Gaul (France) and effect the conquest of that country. 
On Caesar's return from Gaul it was agreed that Pompey should 
support him for reelection to the consulship. 

161. Caesar Conquers Gaul. — The expedition of Csesar into 
Gaul (modern France and Belgium) may be compared with that 
of Alexander the Great in the Orient, or of Hannibal in Italy, 
Caesar proved himself an invincible warrior. The task of sub- 
duing the Gallic peoples required eight years of warfare in which 



176 Ancient Rome 

hundreds of thousands of men perished and eight hundred cities 
were destroyed. Caesar himself wrote a history of this war in his 
Commentaries, a specimen of pure and elegant Latin prose which 
is still read in our schools. 

The first encounter was with the Helvetians (hel-ve'shanz), 
a people who occupied the slopes of the Swiss Alps. Desiring a 
more congenial climate, they destroyed their towns and started 
to migrate westward. Caesar met them on the banks of the 
Rhone, defeated them with fearful slaughter, and drove the sur- 
vivors back to their mountain home. He then met and repulsed 
a great body of Germans who had crossed the Rhine into Gaul. 

In 55 B.C. and again the following year Csesar crossed the Chan- 
nel into Britain, but made no effective conquest of that coun- 
try. After six years of warfare, when it seemed that all Gaul had 
yielded to Roman power, Casar and his army were startled at the 
news that the Gauls in all parts of the country were rising against 
Roman authority, under a powerful leader named Vercinget'orix. 

The world presents no more knightly figure, says a great his- 
torian, than Vercingetorix. Tall and strong, with long, flowing 
light hair and a proud, soldierlike bearing, this man, believing 
that the Gauls should be independent of Rome, called the many 
Gallic tribes to war against the common enemy. 

Caesar quickly faced the new foe. After many minor battles, 
the Gauls took refuge in Alesia (a-le'shi-a), a town on a hill 
not far from Paris. Caesar besieged the city for many days, and 
finally a terrific battle was fought, the Gauls attacking the 
Romans from the city while another army attacked them in the 
rear. Caesar won a consummate victory, the greatest of his 
long military career. 

Vercingetorix, seeing that all was lost, said to his officers, " I 
undertook this war to save the common liberty, not for my own 
profit. Put me to death to satisfy the Romans, or give me up 
alive." A little later he rode down to the Roman camp, and 
threw his helmet at the feet of Csesar. Gaul was conquered, 
and Julius Caesar was the greatest hero of his time. 



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Julius Ceesar 



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Vercingetorix before Cesar — Painting by Royer 



162. Caesar Crosses the Rubicon. — The conquest of Gaul 
from the Rhine to the Pyrenees was very gratifying to the Roman 
people. For hundreds of years the unconquered barbarians of 
the north had menaced the very existence of Rome, and on one 
occasion had burned it to the ground (sec. 131). When therefore 
it was learned that Csesar had mastered the whole land, the 
rejoicing was wild and unrestrained. But there was a discordant 
note. The Senate was in a surly mood, and Pompey, who had 
gone over to the party of the Senate, was extremely jealous of the 
rising fortunes of his one-time friend. To retain his popularity 
Pompey had built a great stone theater and had regaled the people 
with gladiatorial shows. But the people's heart went out to 
Caesar, and Pompey became alarmed lest he should fall from his 
lofty position as the first citizen of Rome. 

The Triumvirate had agreed that Caesar should be elected 
consul after his Gallic campaign ; but the Senate, led by Pompey, 



178 Ancient Rome 

now decreed that Cassar must disband his army before entering 
Italy, and pronounced him a pubUc enemy if he did not do so 
within a certain time. 

Caesar saw clearly that if he complied with the Senate's order, 
he would find himself a defenseless private citizen in the midst 
of his enemies. His only alternative was to march upon Rome 
with his army, and this he chose to do. As he came to the Uttle 
river Rubicon that divided his province from the Italian land, 
it is said that he hesitated thoughtfully before making so momen- 
tous a decision. Then exclaiming, " The die is cast," he plunged 
his charger into the river. 

163. Becomes Master of the "World. — Great was the commo- 
tion in Rome when the audacious act of Csesar became known. 
The great Pompey had boasted that he could fill Italy with armed 
men by stamping on the ground. But he made no effort at de- 
fense ; with many of the senators he fled from the city of which 
he had been master so long and escaped to Greece. 

Caesar moved slowly, irresistibly toward Rome. The towns 
and cities raised no sword against him. The people shouted their 
welcome. W'ithin a few weeks he occupied the city of Rome^ 
without striking a blow. ■ 

Later Ceesar went to Spain and defeated Pompey's followers 
there. Then he proceeded to Greece in pursuit of Pompey himself. 

An incident on the coast of Greece indicated this wonderful 
man's opinion of himself. He was crossing a bay in an open boat 
when a rising storm caused the boatman to quake with fear. 
Cassar said to him, " What hzve you to fear ? You carry Caesar." 

Pompey met his pursuing enemy in the battle of Pharsa'lus in 
Thessaly (48 B.C.), and was utterly defeated. He fled to Egypt, 
but on landing there was slain by order of the king, Ptolemy 
(tol'e-mi), who thus hoped to win the favor of Caesar. In this 
he failed, for Caesar wept when on reaching Egypt he was shown 
the severed head of his former friend and ally. Before leaving 
Egypt Caesar forced the Egyptian king to share his throne with 
his sister Cleopa'tra. He then proceeded to Asia Minor, put down 



Julius Caesar 



179 



a revolt in a short, vigorous campaign, and reported it to Rome in ' 
the three short words " Veni, vidi, vici"'^ (I came, I saw, I conquered). 

A little later we find Cssar at Rome, master of the world. 
How will he use his power ? 

164. Cassar's Policy. — No man that ever wielded imperial 
power did so with greater moderation than did Julius Csesar. 
Relentless in war, he was 
generous and kind to a con- 
quered foe. Caesar was 
great enough to forgive. 
He showed favor to friend 
and foe alike. 

In the brief space of 
Caesar's reign as dictator of 
Rome (48-44 B.C.) he did 
much for the Roman 
people. He made the Sen- 
ate popular by increasing 
its numbers and admitting 
the common people to mem- 
bership. He revived the 
Licinianland law (sees. 125, 
151), and furnished homes 
for 80,000 landless citizens. 
Thus the dream of the 
Gracchi became a reality. 

One of the best things 
Csesar did was to change 

the vicious system of taxing the provinces. He did this by per- 
mitting each town to collect its own share of the taxes in its own 
way. He also reformed the calendar and fixed it nearly as we have 
it to-day (sec. 25). He rebuilt the city of Corinth, and planned 
the rebuilding of Carthage, which was carried out after his death. 




Julius C^sar 
From a bust in the British Museum. 



1 English pronunciation ve'nl, vi'di, vl'si ; Roman pronunciation wa'ne, we'de, 
we'ke. 



i8o Ancient Rome 

Moreover, Caesar determined to do still greater things. He 
planned to make an expedition into Parthia, Scythia, and Ger- 
many, to conquer those countries and add them to the Roman 
dominions. He proposed to codify the Roman laws, to build 
public libraries, to divert the Tiber for the benefit of shipping, to 
drain the great marshes of Italy, and to cut a ship canal across the 
Isthmus of Corinth.^ 

With many of his comprehensive plans unrealized, the great 
Cassar was cut down in the midst of his years. Many an honest 
Roman was too conservative to comprehend or appreciate Caesar's 
swift reform movements, and they feared for the liberties of the 
people. Others were jealous of his colossal power, or felt bitter 
over the downfall of their idol Pompey. Among the malcontents 
were Brutus and Cassius (kash'i-us), both of whom were in Pom- 
pey's army at Pharsalus. Both owed their lives to Caesar's 
mercy and were even raised to office by him. They formed a 
conspiracy to kill him. 

It was the Ides of March (March 15), 44 b.c. Ceesar had been 
advised by friends to have a bodyguard ; but he answered that 
he would rather suffer death than live in fear of it. Of this very 
day there had been ominous rumors, and Caesar had been warned 
to beware the Ides of March. He refused to heed and went to 
the Senate chamber as usual. The conspirators gathered about 
him as if to beg a favor, and stabbed him with their daggers. 
He attempted to defend himself with his stylus (sec. 122), but when 
he saw Brutus, " the noblest Roman of them all," whom he had 
considered his true friend, raise his dagger also, he cried, " Et tu, 
Bru'ie ! " (You too, Brutus !). He then threw his mantle over his 
face and fell at the foot of Pompey's statue, bleeding from more 
than twenty wounds. 

165. Results of the Death of Caesar. — Julius Caesar has been 
pronounced by some writers the greatest statesman in the world's 
history. No doubt he was ambitious. Plutarch tells us that he 

1 A ship canal was completed across the Isthmus of Corinth in 1893, nearly 2000 
years after Caesar had planned it. 



Rise of Octavius i8i 

" had a passion after honor," but this did not mar his usefulness 
to Rome. Distracted and bleeding after a century of civil war, 
Rome was greatly in need of just such a master hand as his. With 
all the Roman world at his feet, his capacity for government had 
not yet been measured. He had nothing but kindness for the 
poor and the oppressed, and even for his sometime enemies. A 
more senseless and insane act than the murder of Csesar would be 
hard to imagine. 

The conspirators, of whom there were more than fifty, perhaps 
believed they were rendering their country a service by ridding 
it of the one-man power. Perhaps they hoped to bring back the 
old days of the republic, but in this they were sadly mistaken. 
Times had changed, and nothing could restore the old conditions. 
They believed, too, that they could win the approval of the Roman 
people and stand before them as liberators and benefactors. In 
this again they grievously miscalculated. 

Caesar's nearest friend was Mark An'tony (in Latin, Marcus 
Anto'nius), his fellow consul, who came into possession of his will 
and his property. In a most adroit funeral oration over Caesar, 
Antony stirred the people to frenzy against the conspirators, who 
would have been killed by the mob had they not fled from the 
city.^ (Side talk, page 184.) 

III. Rise of Octavius 

166. Octavius. — The great Csesar, having no direct descend- 
ants, had named his grandnephew, Octa'vius, as his heir, 
Octavius, a youth of eighteen years, was with some Roman legions 
in Greece when a messenger from his mother announced to him 
the tragedy of the Ides of March. He hastened to Rome to claim 
his inheritance, and it was not long before he had won popular 
favor and shown much capacity for a youth of his age. 

At first Octavius and Antony quarreled, then they became 

1 The address and the whole scene have been immortEtlized by Shakespeare in his 
play Julius Casar. 



l82 



Ancient Rome 



friends and joined with Lep'idus, a commander in the army, in 
forming the Second Triumvirate. UnUke the humane Cassar, 
they put hundreds of their enemies to death, and among them the 
greatest of Roman orators, the aged Cicero. 




Antony and Cleopatra 

Painting by Alma-Tadema. Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, was one of the most 
beautiful women of all time. In the civil war after Caesar's death, Antony sum- 
moned her to meet him at Tarsus, in Cilicia, to explain her part in that war. The 
picture shows the queen as Antony saw her, in her splendidly adorned boat. Shake- 
speare describes her thus in Antony and Cleopatra, Act II, Scene II : 

For her own person, 
It beggar'd all description ; she did lie 
In her pavilion cloth-of-gold of tissue — ■ 
O'erpicturing that Venus where we see 
The fancy outwork nature. 

In 42 B.C. Antony and Octavius led an army into Macedonia 
in pursuit of Brutus and Cassius, the assassins of Caesar. A 
battle was fought at Philip'pi. Brutus and Cassius were de- 
feated and both committed suicide, Cassius with the same dagger 
with which he had struck Caesar. 



Rise of Octavius 



183 



In the triumvirate Lepidus ceased to be an important factor, 
and the government of the Roman world was divided between 
Octavius and Antony. 

167. Battle of Actium ; Death of Antony and Cleopatra. — Octa- 
vius was master of Italy and the West, and Antony of the East. 
But two leaders of equal authority seldom continue long in har- 
mony, nor did this instance prove an exception to the rule. 

After some years the final break between them came about in 
this way. Antony had become enamored of the beautiful Egyp- 
tian queen, Cleopatra, and spent much of his time with her in 
luxurious idleness. He affronted his fellow ruler of the Roman 
world by divorcing his wife Octa'via, sister of Octavius, and 
moreover it was rumored that Antony was planning to overpower 
his rival and transfer the capital from Rome to Alexandria. 

War was now inevitable. In 31 B.C. the two forces met in a 
great naval battle on the western coast of Greece near the 
promontory of Actium 






NicopoJi, 




(ak'shi-um) . Octavius was 
present in person, also An- 
tony and his Egyptian en- 
chantress. But in the midst 
of the battle Cleopatra fled 
in her galley, and Antony, 
learning of the fact, fol- 
lowed her. Their cause 
was lost and their fleet sur- 
rendered. The next year 
Octavius landed in Egypt. 

He met little opposition. Both Antony and Cleopatra committed 
suicide, and Egypt was made a Roman province (30 B.C.). 

After an absence of four years Octavius returned to Rome. 
Though still a young man he was master of the world, as his great 
uncle had been twenty years before. His popularity was un- 
bounded. He went through the formality of handing his power 
over to the Senate, but the Senate restored it to him and he be- 



Battle of Actium 



184 Ancient Rome 

came the first Emperor of Rome (27 b.c.)- At this time Octavius 
was given the title Augus'tus, and he is known to history as Augus- 
tus Caesar. The eighth month of our year was named in his 
honor, as the seventh month had already been named after Julius 
Caesar. 

Side Talk 

Assassination of Caesar. — The conspirators against the life of Caesar 
included some men of high character who joined in the plot evidently 
believing that they would do their country a real service by deliver- 
ing it from one-man power. It is notable that they determined 
to commit the deed in open day and in a public place, and that 
they made no provision for their own escape in case of an up- 
rising of the people against them. The plot had become known to 
some who were not in it, and one of these, a Greek teacher of oratory, 
tried to apprise Caesar of the danger. He wrote out a statement of 
the facts as he had heard them and handed it to Caesar while on his 
way to the Senate chamber. Cassar took the tablet and attempted 
to read it, but in the dense crowd the interruptions were so many that 
he could not do so. 

When the assassination was accomplished Brutus turned to address 
the Senate, but the disorder was so great that he could not be heard, 
and the senators soon rushed from the building and spread the news 
over the city. Even Caesar's nearest friends, Antony and Lepidus, 
fearing that they too were included in the plot, fled to places of safety. 
The conspirators hastened to Capitol Hill in the hope of finding an 
opportunity to address the crowds and explain that their deed was a 
purely patriotic one. For some time the body of Caesar was left where 
it fell, deserted by all except three slaves, who later carried it to the 
home he had left a few hours before. 

The excitement of the city was great when the news spread from 
street to street, and so it continued during the night. Next day Brutus 
addressed a crowd in the Forum, explaining why the deed had to be 
done in order to save the country from despotism. His speech was 
received in silence. 

The body of the dead statesman was reduced to ashes on a great 
funeral pyre in the Campus Martius near the city, amid a great concourse 
of people. The anger of the crowd against the assassins was slowly 
becoming roused. When the will of Caesar was read, it was found 
that some of the conspirators were named as guardians of his property 
and one of them was made an heir. Caesar had willed some splendid 



Rise of Octavius 185 

gardens on the Tiber to the public, and of his vast estate a large part 
was to be divided among the Roman citizens. When the people heard 
this will their outburst of anger was furious against the assassins, and 
they fled for their lives from the city. 

Questions and Topics. — I. Into what three periods m.ay the history 
of Rome at the time of Caesar be divided ? Give an account of Pompey. 
What was a Roman triumph? Do we honor successful commanders 
as the Romans did? Give the story of Catiline and Cicero. In what 
other respects do we know Cicero? V/hat books of his can you name? 

II. Tell the story of Caesar's early life. Why did he and Pompey 
become enemies? Describe Caesar's campaigns in Gaul. What is 
meant by " crossing the Rubicon " as we sometimes hear the expression? 
What is the meaning of veni, vidi, vici? What great things did Caesar 
plan for Rome? Why did many honest Romans fear Caesar's power? 
Is it usual for a great leader to awaken opposition? Give examples. 

III. What can you say of Octavius? Look up and rea,d Antony's 
funeral oration, as given by Shakespeare. Under what circumstances 
did Egypt become a Roman province ? What form did the Roman 
government now assume? What is an empire (sec. 21)? 

Events and Dates. — Pompey conquers Palestine, 63 B.C. Julius 
Caesar conquers Gaul; crosses the Rubicon and captures Rome, 49 B.C. 
Caesar assassinated, 44 B.C. 

For Further Reading. — Same as in preceding chapter; also Dodge, 
Ccesar: History of the Art of War, or any other good biography of Caesar. 
TroUope, Cicero. Plutarch's Lives. 



EL. M. T. — 13 



CHAPTER XIII 
THE AGE OF AUGUSTUS 

I. Augustus and the Germans 

1 68. Organizing the Empire. — For nearly five hundred years 
Rome had been a republic ; but during the last hundred years 
of that time the city had many times been torn and distracted 
by disorder, bloodshed, and civil war. In short, the Roman 
people, whatever their virtues in the early days, had ceased to 
be capable of self-government. A monarchy had become in- 
evitable. 

Augustus Caesar had gathered all the power withni his own 
hands. The pliant Senate obeyed all his commands. While 
the republic was not formally abolished, Augustus was made 
consul, censor, high priest, perpetual tribune, and impera'tor, or 
emperor. But Augustus was not at heart a tyrant. Freed from 
the influence of Antony, he was ready to play the part of his great 
uncle and to forgive his enemies. His reign of forty-one years as 
emperor (27 B.C. -14 a.d.) was a period of comparative quiet and 
of constructive statesmanship. For the third time in the history 
of Rome the gates of the temple of Janus (sec. 130) were closed. 

Augustus was a man of simple personal tastes ; he made no 
effort to imitate the pomp of an Oriental monarch. He built 
great highways through Gaul and in other parts of his dominions. 
He erected splendid monuments and public buildings in Rome 
and boasted that while he found it a city of brick he left it a city 
of marble. 

169. Victory of Hermann. — Augustus loved peace rather 
than war, but there was war here and there in the provinces during 
his reign. He had two stepsons, Drusus and Tiberius, both of 

186 



Beginnings of Christianity 187 

whom were able commanders. Tiberius was sent to the valley 
of the Danube and with signal success drove back the hordes of 
fierce barbarians who threatened Macedonia. Drusus was sta- 
tioned on the Rhine and for three years he traversed Germany. 
He was killed by a fall from his horse. 

Tiberius was then transferred to the north. He conquered 
the German tribes from the Rhine to the Elbe (el'be), and had he 
remained, there is little doubt that the Latinizing of the Germans, 
as in the case of the Gauls, would have been permanent. But 
Va'rus, a vain, weak man, was made governor of the new province. 
Varus treated his subjects as slaves and put on the airs of an 
Oriental monarch. 

The Germans rebelled under a brave young leader named 
Armin'ius, or Hermann, who had received his education at Rome 
Varus and his army were led into an ambush in the Teu'toburg 
forest, surrounded, and cut to pieces (9 a.d.). Varus slew himself, 
and but few of his army were left to tell the story. 

Augustus was overcome with grief at this disaster. From time 
to time he would cry, " Varus, Varus, give me back my legions." 
He made no further attempt at permanent conquest of the Ger- 
mans, and the Rhine remained the Roman frontier for five hundred 
years. 

The effect of the victory of Hermann on modern civilization 
can only be conjectured. It assured the separate development 
of the Classic and Teutonic peoples. Had the Romans remained 
in possession of Germany the country would have been Latinized, 
and the German and English languages and perhaps the ideals and 
institutions of the Teutons and of their English and American 
descendants would be different from what they are. This battle 
is considered one of the decisive battles of the world. 

II. Beginnings of Christianity 

170. Biith of Jesus. — In the midst of the reign of Augustus 
Caesar, at a moment of universal peace, when " no war nor battle 
sound was heard the world around," there was born in Beth- 



1 88 Ancient Rome 

lehem among the Judean hills, One whose influence on the 
future of the world was destined to outshine the influence of all 
the Caesars and the Ciceros, the warriors and the emperors, the 
poets and the philosophers of the time. Jesus was born among 
the lowly, and the great, seething Roman world knew nothing of 
the event. But the time was to come when all historic events, 
ancient and modern, were to be reckoned by the western world 
as so many years or centuries before or after the birth of Christ. 

With a few chosen followers, Jesus spent three years journeying 
through Galilee and other parts of Judea, teaching a new religion 
and laying down a code of morals the best the world had ever 
known. But He awakened antagonisms and made enemies and 
He was put to death under the Roman law. His disciples bore 
witness to the fact that He rose from the dead, and in attesta- 
tion of their conviction they gave their lives to the spreading 
of the new religion. 

171. Spread of Christianity. — The disciples of Christ were 
soon convinced, through a vision of Saint Peter, that the new 
religion was to be offered to all men and not be confined to the 
Hebrew nation. Nor was it to be propagated by force ; it must 
win its way by persuasion and conviction. 

Saint Paul, a later convert and a Roman citizen, became the 
chief agent in carrying the new religion to the Roman dominions 
outside Judea. He first planted churches in Asia Minor, Mace- 
donia, and Greece, and finally in Rome, where, after a life of 
marvelous activity, he suffered martyrdom (about 67 A.D.). 

At the time of Christ the Roman Empire tolerated all religions, 
and thus Saint Paul and his fellow workers had at first a free hand 
in planting churches. But the time soon came when the Christians 
were looked upon as disturbers of public order and persecution 
followed. 1 

1 The picture on the opposite page shows a group of Christian martyrs awaiting 
the fate to be meted out to them for steadfastness to the Faith. The trap door 
has been raised to admit the hungry beasts that are to devour them in the presence 
of the many thousands of spectators. Round the edge of the arena are other 
martyrs, crucified and to be burned. 



Life and Society under the Empire 189 

The first of the persecutions was in the time of Nero when the 
Christians were accused of setting fire to the city of Rome.^ A 
great many Christians, as the historian Tacitus informs us, were 
put to death. They were crucified, sewed in skins of wild animals 
and torn by dogs, or covered with pitch and set on fire to light 
the public places at night. But the new religion survived this 
and various later persecutions and, as noted on a later page, it 
became the state religion of the empire within three centuries 
after its founding. 

III. Life and Society under the Empire 

172. The Upper Class ; Condition of Morals. — The great 
Roman Empire with its growing cities, great highways, ^ and 
stately palaces was nevertheless growing weaker because of the 
decline of private virtue. 

The homes of the rich in Rome were on the hills and slopes, 
while the poor lived in the valleys. The wealthiest Romans had, 
in addition to their city homes, country seats called villas along 
or near the great roads which led from Rome to various parts of 

1 Augustus was succeeded by his stepson Tiberius, who was an able ruler. After 
his long reign, only a few of the emperors were men of importance. The reign of 
Claudius is remembered for the conquest of Britain (43 a.d.). Nero (54-68 a.d.) 
was one of the wickedest men that ever sat on a throne. ' It was said that he sang 
and danced while Rome was burning. Later when accused of having set fire to 
the city, he diverted suspicion by accusing the Christians of having done so. The 
reign of Vespa'sian (69-7Q a.d.) is remembered for the siege and capture of Jerusalem 
by his son Titus (70) and for the building of the Colosse'um in Rome. Under 
Tra'jan (98-117) the empire reached its greatest extent (map following page 200). 
Ha'drian (117-13S) left a name in history by building a great wall between Britain 
and Caledo'nia (Scotland), known as "Hadrian's WaU," to protect the civilized 
Britons from the savage Picts. 

2 The picture on the opposite page shows the Appian Way at Rome, lined with 
temples and mausoleums, and a view of the busy throng making its way along this 
thoroughfare. Near the center is a lady of high rank, seated in her palanquin and 
preceded by Ethiopians, while a slave girl at her side waves a fan to and fro. At the 
left are horsemen from some foreign land, just passing a man and woman standing 
side by side in a chariot. Roman girls seated on the steps offer flowers for sale. 
Above the street an interested group is watching the surging tide of humanity. 



I go Ancient Rome 

Italy. In these villas were found all the luxuries afforded by 
the times — libraries, baths, and beautiful gardens. Many of 
the homes in city and country were fine structures of stone 
or brick. 

The furniture was simple ; it consisted of a chest, a few chairs, 
couches, lamps, and tables. Many articles with which we are 
familiar, such as our mirrors, desks, hat racks, and chiffoniers, 
were unknown to the Romans. The table was often the most 
beautiful and costly piece of furniture in the house. The 
most expensive tables were made of cross sections of the citrus 
tree, brought from Africa. For one of these tables Cicero paid 
a sum equal to $20,000. 

Cicero may be taken as an example of the best of the upper 
class of Romans. He was a man of high character, and there 
were others of the same class, but their numbers were not great 
in the time of Augustus. 

Many of the rich were degraded with luxury. In lofty chariots 
they drove through the streets, followed by troops of dependents 
and slaves. The chariots and the harness on the horses were 
covered with ornaments of gold and precious stones. If a chariot 
ran down and crushed a child in the street the haughty owner 
drove on and cared nothing about it. Rich women wore orna- 
ments so heavy that they could scarcely walk without the aid of 
servants. At the same time great numbers of the poor were 
homeless and starving. 

173. Roman Slavery. — At the time of the founding of the 
empire the most numerous class of the population were the slaves. 
Many of the slaves in the Roman markets had been kidnaped 
by pirates around the shores of the Mediterranean or they were 
unfortunates sold for debt ; but the great source of supply was 
through captives taken in war. It was said that Caesar and 
Pompey alone sent a million men to the slave markets of the great 
city. 

An army in the field was always followed by wholesale slave 
dealers who purchased captives, at a small price, of the commanding 



Life and Society under the Empire 191 

general. The captives were then marched in chains, sometimes, 
hundreds of miles, to the slave markets of Rome. Usually they 
were sold at public auction. A slave was required to stand un- 
clothed on a platform where he was carefully examined by those 
who wished to purchase. 

A Roman citizen could hardly hold a respectable position in 
society unless he owned at least ten slaves. Many a rich Roman 
owned hundreds or even thousands of slaves. A Roman slave 
had no rights in the eyes of the law. The master could wear out 
his life with the severest toil, could punish him as he chose, or 
put him to death. Under the empire, however, a law was passed 
forbidding a master to kill his slave without due process of law, 
and in the later period the condition of the slaves was changed 
for the better by the influence of Christianity. 

Great numbers of the slaves, it is true, lived in comfort, as 
clerks, body servants, teachers, book copiers, and the like ; but 
the majority were forced to wear out their lives in unrequited 
toil, on the great landed estates or in the quarries. Here they 
worked in chain gangs during the day and were housed in dungeons 
at night. 

On various occasions there were great slave uprisings. One 
of these, in 73-71 B.C., led by Spar'tacus, himself a slave, defied 
the Roman armies for two years. ^ In putting down this revolt 
Rome lost perhaps 100,000 men. (Side Talk, page 197.) 

The slave system proved one of the great factors in the ruin 
and downfall of Rome. Free labor could not compete with that 
of slaves, and the great middle class became extinct. All labor 
came to be looked on as dishonorable. The rich, waited on by 
slaves, lived in luxurious ease, and the sturdy manhood of the 
early days declined and disappeared. The time came when even 
the armies had to be recruited from the barbarian population of 
the north. 

' From Spartacus was named the Spartacan (miscalled Spartacide) party of 
radical socialist workmen who tried in vain to seize control of Germany in 1919 
by armed revolution. 



192 Ancient Rome 

174. The Idle Masses. — In our times we speak of the working 
masses ; in Rome the poorer people were for the most part idle 
and shiftless. It must be remembered that there were no great 
manufacturing industries employing thousands of people as in 
our big cities, and that the rich, whose work was done by slaves, 
had no need of employing hired labor. The Roman laws did 
not protect the poor from oppression, and there were no benevo- 
lent societies to relieve from suffering. The poor therefore lived 
in sordid wretchedness, without virtue and without hope. 

The " corn laws " ^ provided for the feeding of the masses of 
paupers, hundreds of thousands of them, with grain sold at a 
low price by the government or given free ; because otherwise, 
maddened by hunger, they would have become dangerous. But 
the upper classes had no feeling of compassion for the poor. The 
poet Horace says, " I hate the common crowd," and even Cicero, 
one of the noblest of the Romans, shows his contempt for the 
masses. 

The poor in Rome were housed in huge lodging houses, three 
or four stories high. These were crowded to their capacity. 
They were not homes in our sense of the word home ; they were 
merely places to eat and sleep. The occupants idled about the 
city during the day, earning a dena'rius now and then by doing 
odd jobs when such could be found. It is true that a considerable 
number of this class had some occupation. There were bakers, 
small shopkeepers, weavers, dyers, and traders ; but the majority 
had no occupation. Even those who worked had no standing in 
society ; work was considered degrading. Julius Caesar did much 
to alleviate the sordid condition of the poor, and Augustus contin- 
ued his policy. But Rome had lost her great, sturdy, industrious 
middle class, and without such a class no nation can long endure. 
The slave system and the pauper conditions spelled ruin for Rome, 
and the doom of the great empire was fast approaching. 

1 The word corn, as it appears in Roman history — and also in English history — 
means grain, usually wheat. Indian corn, or maize, was unknown until after the 
discovery of America by Columbus. 



Life and Society under the Empire 193 

175. The Gladiators. — Nothing more clearly reveals the low 
state of Roman society than the character of their plays and shows. 
Among these the most popular were the gladiatorial shows. The 
gladiators (from Latin gladius, a sword) were men, usually slaves 
or captives in war or criminals, who fought each other in the 
arena to entertain the crowds of people. 




Gladiators before the Emperor 

In the group of combatants in the arena are several holding trident and net. They 

have overcome their opponents in full armor by entangling them in the net, then 

attacking them with the trident. 

We enjoy seeing a game of baseball, or even the rougher game 
of football ; but if one of the players is hurt, the sympathy and 
distress of the crowd of onlookers are very evident. It was 
otherwise with the Romans. They demanded bloodshed for 
their entertainment. The gladiators were thoroughly trained 
for their bloody work. They were brought into the arena of a 
great inclosure called the amphitheater, where tens of thousands 
of people had gathered to see the show. If a gladiator fell wounded 



194 Ancient Rome 

he would raise his hand to the crowd and beg for mercy. If the 
people clenched their fists, it was a sign that the fight must go 
on till one of the combatants was slain ; or by another sign they 
would indicate that the fight must stop and the man's life must be 
spared. Sometimes hundreds of fights took place in a single 
day. The practice of holding gladiatorial shows spread to all 
the cities of Italy, Gaul, and the Roman province of Africa. 

176. Other Games and Shows. — When a traveling circus 
comes to town with its caged wild animals, we are content to 
look at them ; but the ancient Roman would insist on seeing 
them fight and kill one another. The animal combats were 
next to gladiatorial shows in popularity. From all parts of the 
world were brought lions, tigers, bears, elephants, and crocodiles. 

Sometimes the wild animals, goaded to madness by fire or 
hunger, were turned into the arena to fight and kill one another. 
More frequently they fought with armed men, trained for the 
purpose. Still again, men were bound, naked and unarmed, and 
the animals turned loose to devour them. Many of the early 
Christian martyrs perished in this way. 

Pompey the Great brought 500 lions, 18 elephants, and 410 
other animals from Africa to Rome for the entertainment of the 
people. One emperor furnished 11,000 animals for the arena. 
A similar passion for blood still manifests itself in the bullfights 
in Spain and Mexico. 

It is easy to see that a high standard of morals would be im- 
possible among a people of such coarse and degraded taste as 
that shown by the Romans in their choice of entertainment. 
Far more admirable was the artistic taste of the Greeks. In 
the later period of the empire as many as 175 days of the year 
were set apart for plays and amusements. Some of the Roman 
amusements were far less reprehensible than those above de- 
scribed. Among these were the chariot races. They took place 
in the Circus Maximus, an extended course between the Aventine 
and Palatine hills (map, page 200), with seats in tiers to accom- 
modate 385,000 people. 



Roman Literature 195 

The four-horse chariot race was a very exciting affair. Each 
chariot made a triple circuit around the course. Sometimes a 
driver was thrown from his chariot and killed, but usually this 
form of amusement was without bloodshed. 

IV. Roman Literature 

177. The Early Writers. — For five hundred years after the 
founding of Rome there was no writing worthy of being called 
Hterature. The Greeks taught the Romans to write, and the 
earliest writers were Greeks who translated Greek works into 
Latin (sec. 149). One of the greatest of the Roman historians 
was Polybius, a Greek, who was carried to Rome at the time of 
the conquest. He wrote a history of the expansion of the Roman 
power, a part of which has come down to us and is of great value. 

Ter'ence (d. 159 b.c.) was a popular poet who had been a slave. 
He was the author of a famous line,^ which, freely translated, 
means, " As I am a man, everything human interests me." 

The two greatest prose writers just before the establishing of 
the Empire we have already met in the field of statesmanship — 
Julius Caesar and Cicero. Ceesar's Commentaries (sec. 161) holds 
a high place as an example of elegant Latin prose, and it is be- 
lieved to be also a true history of the writer's campaigns in Gaul. 

Cicero is the prince of Latin prose writers. His orations are 
well known to college students and high school pupils. He also 
wrote delightfully on Old Age, Friendship, and many other sub- 
jects. It has been said and is no doubt true that Cicero did more 
than any other man to make Latin the universal language of 
civilization for sixteen hundred years. 

178. The Augustan Age. — The Augustan age is known as the 
Golden Age of Latin literature. Only a few of the leading authors 
can be mentioned here. 

Vergil (70-19 B.C.) and Horace (65-8 B.C.) were the great poets 
of the time. Their writings are still the delight of scholars 

1 Homo sum ; humani nihil a me alienum puto. 



196 Ancient Rome 

throughout the world. Vergil's chief work is the Mne'id, an epic 
poem in twelve books relating the mythical founding of Rome 
and the origin of the Latin race (sec. 119). It reminds us of the 
great poems of Homer. 

Horace is the best known of the Latin poets. He left many 
odes, satires, and epistles. He lived a happy life and his poems 
are pervaded by his spirit of optimism and contentment. 

Livy (59 B.C.-17 A.D.) was the one great historian of the period, 
but only a part of his great work, the History of Rome, has been 
preserved. His history glows with patriotism, but the writer, 
like Herodotus (sec. 87), does not discriminate between fact and 
fable. 

179. The Later Writers. — The most notable writer of the 
age of Nero was Sen'eca, who wrote on science and philosophy 
and produced tragedies founded on Greek models. 

This period could also boast a historian in Tacitus (d. 117), 
who must be ranked in the same class with Livy. The style of 
Tacitus is clear and vigorous. His Lije of Agric'ola, his father- 
in-law and the conqueror of Britain, and his treatise on the life 
and customs of the Germans, are of the greatest interest to modem 
students. 

Plin'y the Elder wrote a Natural History containing 20,000 
facts, a work of great importance, though unscientific. Pliny 
was a man of great learning and an unwearied student. His 
anxiety to study the mighty eruption of Vesu'vius at the time 
of the destruction of Pompeii (pom-pa'ye) and Hercula'neum 
(79 A.D.) led him to venture too near and cost him his life. Pliny 
the Younger left ten books of epistles, one of which contains his 
correspondence with the emperor Trajan. 

Epicte'tus was a philosopher of great ability. He taught that 
the guiding hand of Providence is over all things. His teachings, 
like those of Plato (sec. 90) , bear much resemblance to Christianity, 
but there is no evidence that he met with the early Christians. 

Plutarch (d. about 125) was a Greek, but as he lived for a time 
in Rome and wrote a great deal about Romans, it may be proper 



Roman Literature 197 

to mention him in this connection. Of all the secular writers 
of ancient times none is perhaps more widely read and more 
frequently quoted than Plutarch. Many statements in this book 
are taken from his writings. The greatest work of Plutarch is 
his Lives, a series of biographies or life pictures of famous Greeks 
and Romans, arranged in pairs or parallels, with comments calling 
attention to points of resemblance. 

180. Roman Law. — The Romans were imitators of the Greeks 
in many things, but not in matters of law and government. In 
these they were the leaders, not only of the Greeks, but of the 
whole world. Several hundred years before the founding of the 
Roman Empire the laws had been written in Twelve Tables. 
Every schoolboy was required to study these tables of the laws, 
and that all citizens might know them they were inscribed on 
bronze and set up in a public place at the Capitol. 

As the centuries passed Roman law became more and more 
perfected, reaching its height under the empire. Except in its 
dealings with slaver}^, Roman law was based on a sane recognition 
of human equality and the necessity for order in government. 
This system of law is the basis of the laws which are still in force 
in Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, the Latin American countries, 
and the state of Louisiana. 

Side Talk 

Spartacus and the Servile War. — Spartacus was born in Thrace ; he 
was first a shepherd and later a leader of bandits. Being captured by the 
Romans, he was taken to Capua and trained as a gladiator in the arena. 
Preferring to die in an attempt to gain his freedom, rather than in the arena, 
he formed a conspiracy to escape, and with seventy followers fought his 
way out of the city and took refuge in the crater of Vesuvius. Here he was 
joined by many runaway slaves. 

Organizing a band of marauders, with Spartacus as leader, the slaves 
raided near-by towns and almost annihilated a Roman army of 3000 sent 
against them. Spartacus then issued a proclamation declaring slavery 
abolished in Italy and soon found himself at the head of 100,000 men. He 
marched past Rome to the Po Valley, defeating two large Roman armies. 
He forced some of the Roman knights he had captured to entertain his men 



198 Ancient Rome 

by fighting with swords in an arena. Moving southward again through 
Italy, he was at last defeated and slain by an army led by Crassus and 
the insurrection was suppressed (71 B.C.). 

Questions and Topics. — I. Have you read Plutarch's Life of Julius 
Caesar? Write out a comparison of Julius with Augustus Caesar. Who 
was Hermann? Describe his victory and its supposed effect on the 
future of the world. 

II. Relate the story of the birth of Jesus Christ, of the early spread of 
Christianity. What change took place in the attitude of the Roman 
Empire towards Christianity? 

III. Describe the condition of the upper classes under the empire; 
of the slaves ; of the idle masses. Why were the masses fed at public 
expense? Who were the gladiators and why so called? Can a refined 
and cultured people enjoy bloody games as the Romans did? Does 
the fact that our roughest games, such as football, are less dangerous 
than were the Roman games, prove that we are a more highly civilized 
people than the Romans were? 

IV. Why was Rome without a literature in the early days? Why 
have we so little literature from our colonial days? Can you quote a 
famous line from the poet Terence ? Have you read any of the writings 
of Caesar or Cicero? What is meant by the Augustan Age? What 
effect had the Roman law on the world? What countries to-day base 
their laws on those of Rome? What is law and how are laws made in 
our country? 

Events and Dates. — Augustus Cassar becomes first emperor of 
Rome, 27 B.C. Christianity spreads rapidly under the empire. Roman 
literature reaches its height under Augustus. Among the greatest 
writers are Cicero, Vergil, Horace, and Livy. 

For Further Reading. — Same as in preceding chapter; also, Bury, 
History of the Roman Empire. Pelham, Outlines of Roman History. 
M.orey, Ancient Peoples. Johnston, Private Life of the Romans. Tucker, 
Life in the Roman World of Nero and St, Paul. Cruttwell, History of 
Roman Literat^ire. 



CHAPTER XIV 

ROMAN IMPERIALISM AND THE TRIUMPH OF 
CHRISTIANITY 

I. The City and the Empire 

i8i. A View of the City. — Let us take a glance at the imperial 
city on the Tiber as " she sat on her seven hills and ruled the 
world." 

From the collection of rude huts on the slopes of the Palatine 
Hill, the beginnings of which were ascribed to Romulus, the 
town expanded gradually as the centuries passed. One by one 
the valleys and the hills were covered, one by one the scattered 
villages were swallowed up and lost in the ever-expanding me- 
tropolis. At the time of the empire Rome was by far the great- 
est and most magnificent city in the world. 

From the height of the Capitol one could look over hill and dale 
and see the endless windings of tortuous streets with their teem- 
ing crowds of restless humanity. Beautiful temples and palaces 
and pillars and statues innumerable adorned the surrounding 
hills. There were 10,000 public statues in Rome. Over against 
the river lay the Campus Martins where for hundreds of years 
the Roman youth had gathered to throw the discus, to ride the 
unbroken colt, and to practice feats of arms. At first but an 
open field, the Campus Martins could now be traversed from 
end to end under the cover of grand colonnades. Between it 
and the Capitol stood the great stone theater of Pompey, and a 
little northward was the beautiful temple called the Pan'theon. 

To the southward near the slopes of the Aventine lay the 
colossal Circus Maximus with its hundreds of thousands of 
spectators convulsed with the exciting chariot races. Between 

199 



200 



Ancient Rome 



the Ccelian and Esquiline hills rose in imposing grandeur the 
Fla'vian Amphitheater, or Colosseum, in which the bloody con- 
tests of the gladiators and the wild beasts glutted the sordid taste 
of the gathered thousands. In all directions were sumptuous 
baths and palaces, with marble peaks and cupolas and gables 




Imperial Rome 
The wall surrounding the city was begun by the Emperor Aurelian, a.d. 271. 

gleaming above the green forests of lotus trees that covered the 
parks and gardens. 

What London is to England, what Paris is to France, the Rome 
of the days of the empire was to the civilized world. All that 
was best and all that was worst were centered in Rome. It was 
the center of industry and thrift, the workshop of the world, and 



The City and the Empire 201 

it was the lodgment of thousands of beggars and paupers. Here 
were gathered the artists, the poets, the philosophers, and orators 
from all lands. No ambitious youth felt that his education was 
complete until he had feasted his eyes on the glowing splendors 
of Rome. Here also were gathered troops of blond Germans 
from the dark forests of the north, tattooed savages from Britain, 
Egyptian religious zealots with shaven heads, Oriental princes 
in their shining uniforms. Here, finaUy, were Christian mission- 
aries whose mission was to convert the great, proud, voluptuous 
City of the Seven Hills to the religion of Jesus. 

182. A View of the Empire. — The population of the Roman 
Empire has been estimated at one hundred million souls. Other 
great empires there had been in the past — the Babylonian, the 
Assyrian, the Persian, the Macedonian, — but none could compare 
with that of Rome in the early centuries of the Christian era. 
From the burning sands of the Sahara to the banks of the Danube 
and the Rhine, from the shores of the Atlantic Ocean to the plains 
of Mesopotamia, from the Black Sea to tlie cataracts of the Nile, 
from the desert of Arabia to the boundary of Caledonia — all 
had yielded to the scepter of Rome ; and the many races and 
peoples included in these vast bounds lived under Roman law 
and government. 

The city of Rome ceased to be self-sustaining ; it came to de- 
pend on its extensive provinces for its daily supplies and thus 
became the trading center of the empire. From all seas and 
lands came vessels laden with merchandise for the imperial city 
— grain and fruits and glass from Egypt, wool and silver ore and 
lumber from Spain, wine and oysters from Greece and the ^gean 
Islands, spices and ivory and precious stones from India and 
Arabia. 

The great system of highways that covered large portions of 
the empire made inland travel popular. Such means of rapid 
traveling as we enjoy were of course unknown, and a long journey 
required weeks and months. Journeys were made from motives 
of trade or for pleasure and sightseeing, seldom for exploration 

EL. M. T. — 14 



Military Government of the Empire 203 

and discovery. The ancients were less curious about the un- 
known than we are. A third of Europe, the larger part of Asia, 
and the larger part of Africa were unknown lands to the Roman, 
but he cared little about the matter. The chief desire of many 
a provincial was to visit the city of Rome.^ 

Many languages were spoken in the empire, but the Greek 
and the Latin prevailed. Greek was the language of culture and 
of commerce ; Latin was used in Italy and the provinces of 
Africa, Spain, Gaul, and Dacia (da'shi-a), and it became the basis 
of several modern languages. 

1 83-. Military Government. — The most notable of the em- 
perors of the second century a.d. was Marcus Aure'lius (161- 
180). He was an able and conscientious ruler, but he was more 
than a statesman and ruler. He was a philosopher and thinker 
of the first rank. His Meditations, a book on the conduct of 
life, is one of the noblest products of any pagan writer. An 
English translation of it may be found in many libraries. 

The century that followed the reign of Marcus Aurelius was 
a period of decline and disorder somewhat like the century of 
civil wars that preceded the rise of the great Csesar. The choos- 
ing of the emperors fell to the army, and the army was no longer 
Roman. The Romans of Italy had ceased to enlist, and the army 
was made up of provincials and even of barbarians many of whom 
had never seen the imperial capital. What measure of patriotism 
could be expected of such bands of men? And yet the Roman 

1 In the illustration on the opposite page, the Forum is the open space at the 
right of the center. During the centuries of Rome's greatness it was the chief 
meeting place of the city, and was surrounded by courts, temples, and other civic 
buUdings. At the top of the picture is the lofty temple of Jupiter, on the Capi- 
toline hill. The long arcade to the right of the temple is the Tabularium, where 
the state archives were deposited. The round pillared structure near the bottom 
of the picture is the temple of Vesta. 

With the decline of Rome and the rise of Christianity some of the ancient public 
buildings were transformed, and others were used as quarries from which to erect 
churches and other new buildings. By the twelfth century the Forum had become 
buried forty feet deep in rubbish and was covered by gardens and canebrakes. It 
was not until the nineteenth century that the site was systematically explored. 



204 Ancient Rome 

government rested on their whims. What wonder that it fell 
into decay ? 

In a period of ninety years no fewer than eighty emperors 
were chosen, many of whom died by violence, slain by rivals 
contending for the crown or by the army that had chosen them. 
The army once offered the crown to the highest bidder, and, 
having received the price, found some pretext for putting the 
purchaser to death and again offered it for sale. A few of 
these rulers were men of ability, as Alexander Seve'rus, and 
Aure'lian, who built a great wall around Rome ; but the ma- 
jority were soldiers of fortune devoid of character. 

The condition of the people sank to its lowest ebb. Italy, 
Gaul, Spain, North Africa, were divided into great estates called 
villas, and the proprietors with their troops of slaves lived like 
princes. The small farmers were crowded out, and if they es- 
caped starvation they fled to the city and swelled the crowds 
of paupers or attached themselves to the wealthy landowners. 
Agriculture declined until the supplying of food became a serious 
problem. The taxes were extremely heavy, and as money had 
become scarce the government exacted a portion of the harvest, 
thus going back to the old Egyptian methods of thousands of 
years before. Such was the condition of the empire during this 
century of disorder and anarchy. But a brighter day was dawning 
and the empire was again to enjoy a season of old-time prosperity. 
The new era came with the reigns of Diocletian (dl-o-kle'shan) 
and Con'stantine. 

II. Triumph of Christianity 

184. Struggles of the Early Christians. — At the beginning 
of the Christian era all religions were tolerated in the empire 
(sec. 171). This fact proved to be of great advantage in Asia 
Minor, Africa, and Europe. Mission churches were founded in 
many towns and in the course of the first century great numbers 
of people embraced the new faith. 



Triumph of Christianity 205 

But the early Christians did not escape bitter persecution. 
This arose from three main causes : ( i ) The Christians de- 
nounced all religions except their own as false and all gods ex- 
cept their God as figments of the mind ; (2) They refused to 
pay divine honor to the emperor as required by law ; (3) They 
were believed to have brought pestilence and famine upon the 
land through their insulting of the old Roman gods. 

The early toleration of all religions did not continue, and under 
Trajan (98-117) Christianity became an exception and was out- 
lawed. During the following two centuries ten persecutions were 
enumerated, some of which came under the best of the emperors 
(Marcus Aurelius, Vale'rian, and Diocletian), who were misled 
to believe that the Christians were a menace to public order. 

185. Reign of Diocletian (284-305). — Diocletian was one of 
the strongest men that ever wore the purple. Born in the province 
of lUyricum, he rose in the army service until he became com- 
mander in the East. -When chosen ruler of the Roman world 
he soon put down all opposition and made himself unmistakably 
the master. 

A great change now came over the government. When the 
empire was established three hundred years before, the forms of 
the republic were retained. The Senate continued its sessions 
and kept up a pretense of sharing the power. Consuls and other 
officers were regularly chosen. Diocletian changed all this. He 
brushed aside all pretense of republican forms and made himself 
absolute monarch. 

Another innovation of this emperor was that he chose a col- 
league and divided with him the power of governing. Each 
emperor was called Augustus, and each chose an assistant ruler 
called a Csesar. The vast Roman dominions were divided into 
four sections, each having its resident ruler. This plan was 
very effective under the strong hand of Diocletian, but later 
proved to be impractical. 

The last and the greatest of the persecutions of the Christians 
took place under Diocletian, near the close of his reign. A most 



2o6 Ancient Rome 

determined and widespread effort was made to restore the ex- 
clusive worship of the old Roman gods. Thousands of Christians 
were put to death, often with cruel torture. But all in vain. 
The Christians multiplied in spite of persecution, and the hour 
of their triumph was at hand. 

i86. Constantine the Great. — Diocletian, weary of ruling, abdi- 
cated the throne and spent the remainder of his life on his estate 
near the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea. His system of having 
a multiplicity of rulers soon bore its fruit in civil war. For seven 
or eight years this continued, until there were but two claimants to 
imperial power remaining alive — Licinius in the East and Con- 
stantine, son of a former " Caesar," who ruled Italy and the West. 

Constantine supported Christianity. The story of his con- 
version to the Christian belief is one of the most picturesque of 
history. During a war with a western rival, Constantine, while 
marching to battle, professed to have seen a cross of light in the 
heavens around which appeared the inscription In Hoc Signo 
Vinces (By this sign thou shalt conquer). With this cross as 
his battle sign he pressed on to victory against the rival prince. 
While his victorious troops were returning from the field, Con- 
stantine solemnly declared that henceforth he would support 
the religion whose sign was the Cross. 

Many opinions are expressed as to the probability of the em- 
peror's having seen the vision, or merely pretending to have done 
so, but it is certain that the moment proved an important turning 
point in the history of Christianity. Hitherto it had been an 
outlawed religion, but Constantine issued various decrees favor- 
ing it, and professed himself to be a convert. And when in 323 
he overcame Licinius and became the sole emperor,^ the new 
faith was fairly established as the state religion. 

1 The arch of Constantine, shown on the opposite page, is the best-preserved 
structure of the kind in Rome; many such triumphal arches were built by the 
ancient Romans. The arch of the Carrousel' was erected in Paris in 1805, to com- 
memorate the victories of Napoleon. It is an imitation of a Roman arch. Tem- 
porary triumphal arches were erected in many cities of the United States to 
commemorate the victories of our troops returned from the World War. 




Triumphal Arch of Constantine, Rome 




Triumphal Arch (Carrousel), Paris 
207 



2o8 Ancient Rome 

In 321 Constantine decreed that the Christian Sunday be sst 
apart as a day of rest and forbade all public work on that day. 
This became a wonderful boon to the toiling slaves. 

Constantine is especially remembered in the Church for his 
calling the first general council. In the year 325 he called the 
leading bishops, more than three hundred in number, to meet 
at Nicae'a in Asia Minor to settle a controversy. He met with 
them and presided over their meeting. At this council was formu- 
lated the Ni'cene Creed, which is to-day accepted by nearly all 
the Christian churches in the world. 

The adoption of Christianity as a state religion did not prove 
an unmixed good. It relieved the Christians of persecution, it 
is true, and enabled them with greater advantage to do foreign 
mission work ; but on the other hand, it led thousands of people 
to join the church for selfish and political motives. Furthermore, 
the cross became a military standard. Before the time of Con- 
stantine the followers of the Prince of Peace disdained to propa- 
gate their religion with the sword, but many a time since then the 
cross has been made an emblem of war. 

The reign of Constantine (306-337), surnamed the Great, was 
one of the most successful in the history of Rome. But not 
content to remain at Rome, he removed his capital to the old 
town of Byzantium (bi-zan'shi-um) on the Bos'porus. Here he 
spent vast sums of money in planning and building a new city, 
beautiful for situation above all other capital cities of the world, 
and called it after his own name, Constantinople. 

187. Julian and Theodosius. — Before Christianity had been 
firmly established as the religion of the empire it suffered a mo- 
mentary reaction under Julian (361-363). When he became em- 
peror he determined to restore the old faith, ordered the temples 
of the gods to be rebuilt, and dismissed Christian officers and com- 
manders from his military service. He is known as Julian the 
Apos'tate, which means " the renouncer of his faith." 

But Julian's reign was short. In a war against Persia ' he fell 

1 A reestablished Persia occupying most of the former Parthian empire. 



Triumph of Christianity 209 

in battle with a spear thrust into his body. An oft-told legend 
was that as he attempted to draw the weapon from the wound it 
cut his hand to the bone, and raising his bleeding hand before 
him he cried, " O Galilean, thou hast conquered ! " 

Sixteen years after the death of Julian, Theodo'sius the Great 
(379-395), a vigorous champion of the Christian faith, became 
emperor. He issued edicts against pagan worship and established 
Christianity as the only legal religion of the empire. 

Questions and Topics. — I. Describe the city of Rome in the time 
of Augustus. Why does a great city attract people from all sections? 
Are there such cities in this country? Name some advantages of 
country life over city life. Describe the extent of the Roman Empire. 
What is the greatest world empire existing to-day? What is military 
government or militarism? Why is it dangerous to the people's safety? 
Contrast it with civic government. 

II. Account for the rapid progress of Christianity. Give an estimate 
of the character of Diocletian ; of Constantine the Great. What event 
in Constantine's life became a turning point in the history of Christian- 
ity? In what way did the working classes benefit by the establishment 
of Sunday as a legal day of rest ? 

Events and Dates. — Pagan religions discredited by the growth of 
Christianity. Constantine becomes sole emperor, 323 a.d. ; builds the 
city of Constantinople. Death of Constantine, 337. 

For Further Reading. — See under last three preceding chapters. 



THE TEUTONIC PEOPLES 

CHAPTER XV 
FALL OF ROME AND THE MIGRATION OF THE NATIONS 

I. The Barbarians and the Roman Empire 

i88. The Teutonic Peoples. — The word Germa'nia, or Ger- 
many, as used in the days of the Roman Empire, meant the 
large region from the Rhine to the Vistula, north of the upper 
Danube. But this was not the only land held by the Teutonic 
peoples. They occupied Scandinavia, what is now Ukraine, and, 
after the migrations, immense portions of what had been the 
Roman Empire. Not only are most of the Germans of to-day 
the descendants of those early Teutons, but so also are the 
Dutch, English, Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians, and great 
numbers of French, Spaniards, and Italians. 

The Teutons were Indo-Europeans (sees. 12, 13). They were 
barbarians for hundreds of years after the classic peoples (Greeks 
and Romans) had become civilized. They lived in straggling 
villages and lonely cabins, disdaining city life. Their govern- 
ments were very democratic, for one of their strongest passions 
was a love of liberty. They cultivated the soil in a rude way and 
raised flocks and herds. 

The Teutons worshiped the forces and objects in nature, and 
they had no temples and no class of priests. They loved the 
chase and were fierce in war. Their greatest vices were drinking 
and gambling. But they were not devoid of virtue. Their 
family life was chaste and they had an intense regard for truth 
and plighted faith. If a man lost all he had in gambling, it often 
happened that he wagered his liberty, and if again he lost, he 
suffered himself to be bound and sold into slavery. 



The Barbarians and the Roman Empire 211 

It was this great Teutonic race that was destined to overthrow 
the Roman Empire and to wrest from the classic peoples the leader- 
ship in the world's civilization. 

189. Division into Tribes. — The Teutonic race was divided 
into many independent tribes, some of which played an important 
part in the history of the times. Among these were the Goths, 




Captive Goths 

From sculptures on a column erected in Constantinople about 400 a.d. The Goths 
were tall and athletic, with fair complexions, blue eyes, and yellow hair, more like 
the Scandinavians than any other modern people. The men wore long beards. 
Their dress consisted of a short tunic with girdle, wide turned-down coUar, and short 
sleeves; an inner garment to the knees; and trousers sometimes reaching to the 
ankle. These garments were often referred to as distinguishing the Goths from 
the bare-legged Romans. 



who occupied the valley of the lower Danube and the northern 
shore of the Black Sea. They are supposed to have come from 
Scandinavia in prehistoric times. They later divided into two 
branches known as the Visigoths (viz'i-goths) or West Goths, and 
Os'trogoths or East- Goths. It was the Goths, as we shall soon see, 
who were the first of the barbarians to penetrate into the empire. 
North and west of the Goths dwelt the Vandals, the Burgun- 
dians, the Lombards, the Franks, the Angles, and the Saxons, 



212 The Teutonic Peoples 

who were to make deep and permanent inroads on the unwieldy 
possessions of the empire. Still farther north were the North- 
men, ancestors of the Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes. (See map 
facing page 218.) 

There were various reasons that impelled these Teutonic peoples 
to make incursions into the domains of Rome. Sometimes their 
sole object was to plunder ; again they sought new homes when 
driven by Slavic peoples or by the Huns, a savage barbarian race 
that came from Asia. But in most cases their chief object was to 
seek better homes and easier conditions of life. The great wealth 
of the empire and its weakening government were well known to 
them. The luxuries of civilized life, the genial, sunny climate 
of Italy and Spain as contrasted with the bleak winters and 
dark, forbidding forests of their native North, proved irresistible 
in their alluring attraction to the barbarian bands. 

190. The Visigoths and the Capture of Rome. — North of the 
lower Danube dwelt the Visigoths. About 376 they became 
sorely frightened at the approach of the murderous Huns and 
besought the Roman emperor to permit them to cross that great 
river and settle within the empire. The request was granted and 
the tribe, numbering perhaps 100,000, crossed the river. But 
they were so oppressed by the Roman ofhcials that they rose in 
revolt. The emperor marched against them with an army, and 
a great battle was fought at Adriano'ple (378). The Visigoths 
won the victory. The imperial army was utterly routed and 
the emperor Va'lens was himself slain. 

A year later Theodosius the Great, becoming emperor (sec. 
187), pacified the barbarians and kept them under his control. 
On his death the governing power fell to his two worthless sons, 
Arca'dius, to rule at Constantinople, and Hono'rius at Rome. 
This proved to be a final division of the great Roman Empire into 
East and West. The Western Empire, however, was destined to 
fall under the control of Teutonic tribes within a hundred years. 
The Eastern Empire continued more than a thousand years 
longer, until Constantinople was captured by the Turks in 1453. 



The Migration of the Nations 213 

Soon after the death of Theodosius a great leader, Al'aric, 
arose among the Visigoths. Under his leadership the tribe left 
their eastern abode and moved into Italy, marched upon Rome 
(410) and took the city, after vainly attempting to make terms 
with Emperor Honorius. Never before had the proud city of the 
Tiber yielded to a foreign invader, except once, and precisely 
eight hundred years had passed since then (sec. 131). Alaric, it 
may be said, was no longer a barbarian, as he had spent many 
years within the empire. His followers were not all Visigoths ; 
many were discontented Romans. He was a Christian convert 
and he forbade his men to destroy the churches ; but the records of 
the time show that they plundered the palace of the Caesars and 
helped themselves to the treasures of the rich. 

Leaving the imperial city, Alaric moved with his hordes farther 
south into Italy, but within the year he died. His people moved 
later into southern Gaul and into Spain, where they settled and 
remained in control for three hundred years. 

191. The Kingdom of the Vandals. — When the Visigoths 
arrived in Spain they found the Vandals already there. Four 
years before Alaric took Rome, the Vandals had crossed the 
Rhine on the ice and had poured into Gaul in great numbers. 
They ruined many cities and spent three years traversing Gaul, 
leaving desolation in their trail. Arriving in Spain, they settled, 
and here they were at the coming of the Visigoths. After years of 
warfare with the newcomers, the Vandals were driven out of Spain 
into North Africa, where they set up " the Kingdom of the 
Vandals." 

In 455 the Vandals, under their able leader, Genseric (jen'ser-ik), 
crossed the Mediterranean and brought far greater disaster to Rome 
than Alaric had done in 410. They sacked the city and with the 
booty filled their ships waiting at the mouth of the Tiber. So reck- 
less were they that to this day we speak of the wanton destruction 
of property as vandalism. But the Vandal chief, at the special re- 
quest of Leo the -Great, Bishop of Rome, promised to spare the 
city from fire and the people from massacre, and he kept his word. 



214 The Teutonic Peoples 

192. The Invasion of Attila and the Huns. — Four years before 
this second sack of Rome there was fought in Gaul the battle of 
Chalons (sha-loN'), one of the great, decisive battles of history. 
The Huns were under their powerful leader, At'tila, who boasted 
that the grass never grew where his horse had trod. He was called 
the " Scourge of God " ; that is, the people believed that God 
had sent him to punish wicked nations. He devastated the East 
and then moved into Gaul. Here near Chalons the invading 
hordes were met by the Roman general Aetius (a-e'shi-us), aided 
by the Visigoths. A tremendous battle was fought (451). The 
Huns were defeated and driven back to their haunts on the 
Danube. Two years later Attila died, and never after were the 
Huns so great a menace to Europe. (Side Talk, page 220.) 

The victory at Chalons was important because the Huns, had 
they been successful, would no doubt have destroyed the rising 
civilization of the Teutonic peoples. 

193. The Fall of Rome ; the Ostrogoths. — The City of the 
Seven Hills had reached a pitiable condition. Twice within half 
a century it had been captured and humiliated by barbarian 
hordes, and there were few to raise a hand in its defense. The 
old spirit of patriotism, the spirit that had made the name of Rome 
a magic name and that had led forth the legions to the world's 
conquest, was gone. 

In 476 Odoacer (o-do-a'ser) , leader of a Teutonic tribe, deposed 
the last so-called Emperor of the West, Romulus Augus'tulus, a 
mere child, ^ and himself took the title of King of Italy. This is 
often referred to as the date of the " Fall of Rome " because there 
was no emperor of the West after this time. But the fall of Rome 
was a matter of centuries. For many years before the "fall" 
thousands of Teutons had dwelt in Italy and thousands had served 
in the armies. The canker had long been gnawing at the roots 
of the tree. The land system and the slave system had ruined 
Rome and the city was incapable of self-defense. There was no 

1 Strictly speaking this child-emperor was not emperor at all, though he had been 
nominated for the crown by his father. See Robinson's The New History, page 194. 



The Fall of Rome 215 

sudden downfall, and various other dates might serve as well as 
476 to mark the fall of the Western Empire and the dividing line 
between ancient and medieval history. 

Not many years was Odoacer left to enjoy the fruits of his 
victory. A stronger man came upon the scene — Theod'oric, 
king of the Ostrogoths. Followed by vast hordes of his people, 
Theodoric entered Italy, defeated and slew Odoacer (493) and 
made himself king. His reign was long and was more successful 
than those of many of the emperors. 

194. Clevis and the Franks. — Perhaps the most interesting 
and important of the Teutonic peoples were the Franks, who 
occupied the lower Rhine Valley and later what is now Belgium 
and northern France. They were divided into many local tribes, 
each with its petty king. One of these was Clo'vis (481-51 1), 
who conquered his rivals and made himself king of all the Franks. 
Clovis defeated the Roman governor of northern Gaul and put 
an end to the authority that had been established there by Julius 
Caesar five centuries before. He conquered the Burgundians, 
who had settled in the Rhone Valley, and drove the Visigoths out 
of southern Gaul. Thus he became master of a great kingdom. 

Clovis is remembered as the first king of France, also for 
leading his people to embrace Christianity. His wife Clotil'da 
was a Christian and often she implored him to adopt the religion 
of Jesus. At length when in the midst of a great battle he 
resolved to pray to the God of the Christians and to become a 
Christian himself in case he won. The battle went in his favor 
and straightway he was baptized together with 3000 of his war- 
riors. His childlike conception of the new faith was shown by 
the following: One day when listening to the story of Christ's 
crucifixion he exclaimed, " If I had been there with my valiant 
Franks, I would have avenged him." 

Clovis claimed descent from a mythical hero named Merovae'us, 
and his dynasty is therefore known as the Merovin'gian kings. 

195. Justinian and the Last of the Teutonic Invasions. — A 
half century after the fall of the empire at Rome a strong man 




2l6 



The Barbarians and the Roman Empire 217 

ascended the throne at Constantinople. He was Justin'ian (527- 
565), who had risen from the peasant class. In order to " restore 
the grandeur of the empire " Justinian determined to conquer 
the invaders of western Europe. He sent his great general, 
Belisa'rius, against the Vandals of North Africa. In 534 Belisarius 
completely overthrew the Vandal kingdom, and the Vandals 
as a separate people disappeared from history. Twenty years 
later the armies of Justinian wrested Italy from the Ostrogoths, 
and they too are heard of no more as a separate people. Soon 
after the death of Justinian came the barbarous Lombards (568), 
the last of the Teutonic invaders. They occupied the Po Valley 
and other parts of Italy, where they remained in control for two 
hundred years, but they never gained the whole of Italy. 

Justinian was a great builder and among his monuments was the 
superb cathedral of St.* Sophi'a in Constantinople ^ ; but his great- 
est claim to enduring fame lies in his code of laws. Under his 
direction, men collected and put into order all the most important 
Roman laws and legal documents of the past. This work of many 
volumes ranks among the great law codes, and is the most precious 
inheritance that ancient Rome gave to the modern world. 

196. Conquest of Britain. — Rome had conquered Britain 
back in the early days of the empire (sec. 171, note) and had re- 
tained possession for nearly four centuries. But when the Visi- 
goths marched on Rome the emperor withdrew his army from 
Britain. The Britons had lived in harmony with the Roman 
army and had been protected by it so long that they had lost the 
art of warfare. When the Romans withdrew, the Picts of Scot- 

1 The church built by Justinian was converted into a Turkish mosque, as shown 
in the picture opposite. The building is square, surmounted by a great dome, 
with half domes on two sides. The open arcades of the second story contain the 
women's seats. The great disks on the walls of the second story have Turkish in- 
scriptions. The marble pavement is partly covered with prayer carpets spread in 
the direction of Mecca, towards which the Mohammedan faces when at prayer. 
All the columns are of costly marbles and the walls are covered with mosaics which 
the Turks concealed with whitewash. St. Sophia is the most famous example 
of Byzan'tine architecture, the style developed in the Eastern Roman Empire. It is 
considered the most beautiful church ever erected. . 

EL. M. T. — 15 



2i8 The Teutonic Peoples 

land began to pour across Hadrian's wall from the north, and the 
Scots approached from Ireland. The Britons appealed to the Ro- 
mans to come back and help them, but Rome could do nothing. 
The Britons then invited the Jutes, a small Teutonic tribe from 
across the North Sea, to come and aid them. The Jutes came 
about 449, but soon they were fighting the Britons who had in- 
vited them. Later came also Saxons and Angles, neighbors of 
the Jutes in northern Germany, and after long and bloody wars 
the Britons were slain or driven into Wales. The three Teutonic 
tribes became the ancestors of the English, and the Angles gave 
their name to the new country — Angleland or England. 

197. Blending of the Peoples. — When the Teutonic tribes 
moved into Gaul, Spain, and Italy, they found a numerous popu- 
lation, and these countries became the melting pot of the nations. 
The invaders did not attempt to exterminate or enslave the na- 
tives ; they settled among them, and some even adopted their 
language and customs and intermarried with them. In the 
course of centuries the two peoples blended into one. Thus it 
will be seen that the modern Italian, Spaniard, and Frenchman 
has a liberal spray of Teutonic blood in his veins, while the English 
are almost wholly Teutonic. 

The barbarians who settled among the old Roman population 
were a strong, vigorous people, but they were illiterate and had 
no appreciation of art, science, or literature. The result was 
that the level of culture and intelKgence was lowered, and in the 
long process of blending of the two races there was much disorder 
and violence as well as ignorance. Europe had entered on the 
period known as the Dark Ages. 

II. Review of the Ancient Nations 

198. Ancient Civilizations. — Briefly we have followed the prog- 
ress of the early nations in ancient times. Endowed with an intel- 
lect denied to the lower animals, man struggled with the forces 
of nature, rising little by little from a state of savagery through 




Facing 21S 



Review of the Ancient Nations 219 

various stages of barbarism to a higher civihzation. How many- 
ages this struggle continued before the dawn of historic times is 
unknown to us. Already man had made wonderful progress — he 
expressed himself in language, he knew the use of fire and of 
metals, he was a builder of cities, a keeper of flocks, and a tiller 
of the ground. He had put a measureless distance between him- 
self and the highest of the animals beneath him. 

At length man learns to record his thought by means of char- 
acters he has invented, chiseling them in stone or stamping them 
in clay. He begins to make a record of his own doings — and his- 
toric times have begun. 

The light of history first breaks, almost simultaneously, upon 
the valleys of the two great rivers — the Euphrates and the Nile. 
Later the people of these two river valleys, the Egyptians and the 
Babylonians, are joined by the Phoenicians and Hebrews ; and the 
four peoples hold the leadership in civilization for thousands of 
years. Meanwhile they struggle on and up ; they build colossal 
pyramids and temples and great cities ; they make systems of laws ; 
they invent an alphabet, and they improve in agriculture and 
handicraft. Europe during this long period was in a state of bar- 
barism, similar to that in which Columbus found America. 

More than a thousand years before Christ, Egypt had passed 
her zenith and had begun to decline ; Babylonia was subdued by 
the warlike Assyrians of the upper Tigris. For half a thousand 
years Assyria held the world in bondage ; then she, too, was 
conquered, and mighty Nineveh, the city " gorged with prey," 
was blotted from the face of the, earth. 

The Persians, the first of the Indo-European peoples to make a 
record in the world's life, were the next to rise to the supreme 
height. But the reign of the Persians was short. Five or six 
hundred years before Christ, the scepter passed across the narrow 
channel and the Greeks became the leaders of civilization. We 
admire the Greeks for their wonderful proficiency in literature, 
in philosophy, in sculpture and architecture, but we deplore their 
weakness in government, their inabihty to unite in a great empire. 



2 20 The Teutonic Peoples 

After three or four hundred years of supremacy the Greeks 
were subdued by the Romans, a kindred people speaking a kin- 
dred language, the last and greatest of the ancient peoples. In 
law and government the Romans surpassed all other nations of 
antiquity. The City of the Seven Hills, after subduing the 
Italian lands, sent forth her armies for world conquest. One after 
another the nations about the Mediterranean fell until none re- 
mained. Rome was mistress of the civilized world. 

The centuries passed. The glory of conquest no longer lured 
the warrior to deeds of valor or to self-denying virtue. The 
wealth of all lands poured into Rome, and Rome was corrupted by 
the luxuries of wealth. Except among the Christian converts here 
and there private virtue was scarcely known. The pleasures of 
the people were found in the sordid shows of blood and slaughter ; 
life had little meaning ; an appalling languor overspread the vast 
empire. The rich oppressed the poor ; the masses were paupers 
and slaves ; the great middle class, without which no nation can 
live and be strong, ceased to exist. Rome was tottering to its 
fall. The barbarian hordes poured in from the north and humbled 
the proud city of the Tiber. 

The Classic peoples (Greeks and Romans) had led the world 
for a thousand years, but the day of their power was gone. The 
virile Teutons, slowlj' merging from barbarism, assumed the 
leadership and have held it from that day to this — nearly fifteen 
hundred years. Strong of body and strong of intellect they were, 
but as yet crude and uncultured and incapable of utiHzing the 
splendid achievements of the civilizations of the past. Beginning 
almost at the bottom, they passed through long dark centuries 
of training. This period, the prelude to the Middle Ages, is to be 
treated in the following chapters. 

Side Talk 

Attila and the Hims. — The great leader of the Huns was so pleased 
with the cognomen " Scourge of God," given him by the Christians, 
that he adopted it. He was repulsive in appearance. He was of dark 



Review of the Ancient Nations 221 

complexion ; his head was large, his nose flat, his eyes deep-seated and 
small. He artfully played on the superstition of his people. Among the 
stories of him that the people believed was one relating that the ancient 
Sword of Mars had been discovered and delivered to him with the in- 
junction that he make himself master of the world. Attila soon made 
himself master of vast sections of central and eastern Europe. 

The rich lands of Gaul lured the great barbarian monarch to the 
west, and he determined to add them to his dominions. With fire and 
sword he devastated the country, massacring the people ; but it was 
said that Paris was saved through the prayers of Saint Gen'evieve. 
When the battle of Chalons began Attila stood in the front of the battle 
line and cast the first javelin. The slaughter of men was tremendous. 
Nothing but the coming of nightfall saved the Huns from a complete 
rout. The remnant of their army couched during the night within a 
great circle of wagons with which they had made an embankment. 
Attila was determined not to be taken alive. He made a great pile 
of saddles from his cavalry horses and determined to set it on fire and 
rush into the flames and perish rather than fall into the hands of the 
enemy. But the victors were too greatly weakened to renew the battle 
next morning, and the Huns made their way to their haunts in the east, 
never to return. 

Questions and Topics. — What were the chief vices and virtues of 
the early Teutonic peoples? Describe the capture of Rome by the 
Visigoths and their later migration to Spain. What do we mean by 
the word vandalism and how did it originate? Why is 476 often given 
as the year of the fall of Rome? Who was Clovis? Describe the 
method of his conversion. Why is Justinian remembered in history? 
Who were the Jutes, Saxons, and Angles, and how did they come to 
migrate to Britain? What is the origin of the name England? Show 
how the American people are in a large degree of Teutonic origin. 

Events and Dates. — Victory of the Visigoths at Adrianople, 378 a.d. 
They capture Rome, 410, and later move into Spain. The Vandals 
move into Africa. Huns defeated at Chalons, 451. " Fall " of Rome, 
476. Clovis, d. 511, founds the Kingdom of the Franks (France). 
Justinian the lawgiver, d. 565. Jutes, Saxons, and Angles occupy 
Britain, 449 and later. 

For Further Reading. — Church, Beginning of the Middle Ages. 
Oman, The Dark Ages. Wolfson, Essentials in Ancient History. The 
writings of Seneca, Epictetus, and of Marcus Aurelius are in many libra- 
ries, but many of their writings are quoted in Farrar's Seekers after God. 



CHAPTER XVI 
RISE OF THE PAPACY; MOHAMMEDANISM 

I. Rise of the Papacy 

199. Conversion of the Invaders. — The menace to the civiliza- 
tion of Europe would have been appalling had the Teutonic in- 
vaders of the Empire remained pagan. But every tribe that 
came was converted to the Christian religion. Indeed it was 
the Christian religion that served as the great welding agent in 
the blending of the Roman and barbarian peoples into one. 

The religion of the invading Teutons was as dark and forbid- 
ding as the forests they abandoned. The Roman Christians 
preached to them with unwearied zeal, preached to them a new 
doctrine, a doctrine of light" and hope that gave them a new 
view of life and placed a new and infinite value on the individual 
soul. The barbarians proved ready hearers and wholesale con- 
versions were not unusual. 

Many of them, however, accepted the form of Christianity 
known as A'rianism, from A'rius of Alexandria, who taught that 
Christ was not God, but merely a perfect being whom God created. 
His followers were called Arians, while the opposite party were 
known as Athana'sians or orthodox Christians. The general 
council at Nicsea (sec. 186) decided against Arianism, but the 
controversy continued for several centuries before the Arians 
finally yielded. 

200. Monks and Monasteries. — In the early Christian cen- 
turies there were men whose religious fervor was so intense that 
they fled from human society and lived in solitude in caves or 
deserts. They were called monks, from a word meaning alone. 
They believed that they could live holier lives by remaining apart 
from the temptations of the human world, living as hermits and 



Rise of the Papacy 



223 



spending their time in fasting, prayer, and self-inflicted mortifi- 
cation. The name monks was also given to men living in com- 
munities apart from the world. 

One of the monks, Saint Benedict, founded a monastery early 
in the sixth century and wrote a Rule under which many mon- 
asteries were founded in the West. These western monks did 




Monk Copying a Manuscript in a Monastery Library 



not live an idle life. They cultivated the lands about the mon- 
asteries, wrote and copied books, and sent out missionaries. 

There were no printing presses in those days ; books were 
made by hand and it required years of labor to copy a large book 
with the pen. Many of the best books of the ancient world were 
preserved through the labors of the monks. 

Benedict suggested a triple rule for his monks — poverty, 
chastity, and obedience. They were not permitted to marry 
or to hold property, though the monastery itself often became 
wealthy. Other orders of monks and of friars were founded later 
and during the Middle Ages they were a great force in the church. 



224 The Teutonic Peoples 

201. Beginnings of the Papal Power. — The greatest power 
in tlie Middle Ages was the power of the church as represented by 
the Pope at Rome. The leading churchman in a large city was 
known as a bishop, and had general charge of the churches of the 
community. The bishop of Rome claimed authority over other 
bishops. The church was called Catholic, which means Universal. 

The power and authority of the papacy were greatly enhanced 
by the accession of Leo the Great (440-461). With vigor and 
success this prelate, who was a man of great sincerity and ability, 
propagated the doctrine that the bishop of Rome as the successor 
of Saint Peter should be the head of all Christendom. At his 
suggestion the western emperor issued a decree declaring the 
authority of the bishop of Rome supreme. It was several hun- 
dred years later before the name pope (Latin papa, " father "), 
given to all the bishops in the early period, came to be given 
exclusively to the bishop of Rome. After the time of Leo the 
authority of the pope came to be acknowledged by all western 
Christendom, though the eastern church with headquarters at 
Constantinople refused to acknowledge it and has never done so 
to this day. 

The authority of the Catholic Church grew mightily during 
the centuries that immediately followed the Teutonic invasions. 
The government of the empire was weak and incompetent and 
the people looked to the church for advice and guidance in secu- 
lar as well as in spiritual affairs. Thus the church became 
stronger and before the close of the Middle Ages the pope was by 
far the most powerful ruler in Europe. 

202. Conversion of England and Germany. — Not only the tribes 
that migrated to southern Europe, but the English also and the 
Germans who remained in the north were won over to Christianity. 

About 432 Saint Patrick, who had been a British slave, made 
his way to Ireland as a missionary. With drum and trumpet he 
drew people to him, and is said to have converted the entire is- 
land. About a century later Saint Colum'ba carried the gospel 
to Scotland and founded the Scottish Church. 



Rise of the Papacy 



225 



Still later came Augus'tine to England. Pope Greg'ory the 
Great (590-604) was so attracted by some young Englishmen 
whom he saw in the slave market at Rome, that he determined 
to send missionaries to England. In 597 Augustine was sent with 
a body of monks. Their success was very marked and within a few 
decades England was numbered among the Christian countries. 




Whitby Abbey 

A Benedictine monastery founded in England in 657 a.d. The ruin stands on a 

high cUff overlooking the North Sea. In' igi4 it was partially destroyed by 

German shell fire, during a bombardment of the neighboring seaport. 

What Augustine did for England, Saint Bon'iface did for Ger- 
many. He was a man of great religious fervor and untiring 
energy. Penetrating far into the German forests, he persuaded 
one tribe after another to accept the religion of Christ. He 
founded many churches and a number of bishoprics. After 
spending a long life in the cause he loved so ardently, he died 
a martyr's death (754). Saint Boniface is known as the "Apostle 
of Germany." 



II. Mohammedanism and the Arab Invasion 

203. Mohammed and his Religion. — Christianity was six 
hundred years old when a rival religion was born on the far-away 



226 The Teutonic Peoples 

Arabian plains. There were Christians and Jews among the 
Arabians, but the great mass of the people were idolaters. The 
city of Mecca, not far from the Red Sea, was a center of Arabian 
worship. Here was the Caaba (ka'a-ba) , a square building con- 
taining some hundreds of idols, including the famous black stone. 
This sacred stone was the most precious thing in Arabia. The 
Arabs said that it was dazzling white when brought to earth by 




The Caaba, Sxireounded by Colonnades of the Mosqxje 

The pilgrimage to Mecca is the most sacred observance of Mohammedanism. Pil- 
grims from all Mohammedan countries gather at the sacred mosque. The city of 
Mecca is about 45 miles, two camel marches, inland from the Red Sea. A railroad 
from the north will soon reach Mecca ; it already extends as far as Medina. 

the angel Gabriel, but that it had been turned black by the sins 
of the men who had touched it. 

In Mecca about the year 570 the prophet Moham'med was 
born. As a youth he was distant and meditative. He was a 
camel driver without fortune, but when middle-aged he married 
a rich widow and was raised above want. He now had more 
time for meditation and he brooded over the idolatrous religion 
of his people. Many a solitary night he spent among the moun- 
tains, gazing into the silent sky. At length he began to see vi- 



Mohammedanism and the Arab Invasion 227 

sions and to hear voices. BeUeving that the angel Gabriel ap- 
peared to him and revealed to him a new religion, he began to 
preach. At first his converts were few ; he awakened the hos- 
tility of his townsmen, and was forced to flee from his native 
city. This flight from Mecca to Medina (ma-de'na), which took 
place in 622, was called the Hegira (hej'i-ra or he-ji'ra ; Arabian 
for "flight"), and from this year the Mohammedans reckon 
time. Mohammed believed that his religion should be propagated 
by the sword. Eight years after his flight from Mecca he re- 
turned to that city a conqueror, destroyed its idols, and made it 
the center of his religious kingdom. When he died, in 632, all 
Arabia had become Mohammedan. 

The religion of Mohammed was set forth in the Koran (ko-ran'), 
the Mohammedan Bible. Mohammed had often met Jews and 
Christians, and he borrowed freely from their religion. He 
recognized Moses and Christ and others as true prophets, but 
regarded himself as the last and greatest prophet of all. His creed 
was simply the few words, " There is no god but Allah, and Mo- 
hammed is his prophet." On his followers he enjoined a simple 
life — fasting, abstaining from strong drink, giving alms, going 
on a pilgrimage to Mecca, and praying five times a day with 
face turned toward Mecca and head bowed to the ground. Po- 
lygamy is permitted, and woman in the Mohammedan world 
occupies a degraded position. 

204. Mohammedan Conquests; Battle of Tours. — The re- 
ligion of Mohammed is called Is'lam, and his followers are called 
Mos'lems. Jesus had sent forth his followers to conquer the 
world by preaching love; the Arabian prophet sent his to con- 
quer with the sword. 

No band of men ever set out on a great task with more fanati- 
cal zeal than the followers of Mohammed in their attempt to 
conquer the world for the new religion. Great numbers of men 
were drawn to their ranks. Within a few years they had con- 
quered Mesopotamia and Persia. Near the site of ancient Babylon 
they built the magnificent city of Bagdad (bag-dad')- 



228 



The Teutonic Peoples 



They conquered Syria and Palestine and erected a mosque 
(Mohammedan church) on the site of the temple of Solomon at 
Jerusalem. Crossing over into Egypt, the Moslem hosts cap- 
tured Alexandria after a long siege and soon had possession of all 
Egypt. Moving through North Africa, they bore down all op- 
position and made subjects and converts of every people until 
they reached the western coast. Fifty years after the death of 
the prophet a great part of the civilized world had been sub- 
dued and the Moslem banners were waving over all lands from 



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Mohammedan Dominions 



the Indus Valley in India westward through North Africa to the 
Atlantic. How could Europe escape? 

More than a thousand years had passed since the Greeks of 
Europe had taken the scepter of civilization from the hands of 
the Semitic Orient, and in the meantime Christianity had be- 
come the religion of the western world. It seemed now that the 
tide .was turning. Certainly the menace to Christianity was 
very great. 

In the East and in the West the Mohammedan hordes soon 
made attacks on Europe. At Constantinople they were re- 
pulsed by the Eastern Roman Empire ; but they crossed from 



Mohammedanism and the Arab Invasion 229 

Africa into Spain (711) and within a few years had destroyed 
the kingdom of the Visigoths and taken possession of the land. 

France was the next to be attacked, and if the Franks should 
be subdued, it was difficult to see how England, Germany, and 
Italy could escape. 

Under a powerful leader the Moslem hosts crossed the Pyre- 
nees and moved far northward into France. Then came another 
of the decisive battles of history, the battle of Tours (toor). It 
turned back the Mohammedan tide and saved Europe and the 
western world to Christianity. This battle was fought in 732, 
exactly one hundred years after the death of Mohammed. The 
hero was Charles Martel', the intrepid leader of the Franks. The 
Moslems were driven back into Spain, where they built up a 
civilization and remained for nearly eight hundred years ; but 
never again did they get a foothold north of the Pyrenees. 

Side Talk 

Charles Martel and his Victory. — Seldom in the annals of mankind 
has the future of the world's history so completely hinged on a single 
battle as on the battle of Tours, 732, sometimes called the battle of 
Poitiers (pwa-tya'). The battle ground was between the towns of 
Tours and Poitiers. The Mohammedan leader, Abd-er-Rahman, was a 
daring commander ; with his mighty host he had swept through southern 
France, leaving frightful desolation in his trail. Had he been suc- 
cessful at Tours, as the historian Gibbons says, " perhaps the inter- 
pretation of the Koran would now be taught in the schools of Oxford." 

Charles, later called Martel (the Hammer), was the one hope of 
France. The people cried out to him for deliverance. He prepared 
to meet the invaders but did not hurry. He said, " If you follow my 
advice you will not intercept their march. They are like a torrent, 
which it is dangerous to stem in its career. The thirst for riches and 
the consciousness of success redouble their valor, and valor is of more 
avail then arms or numbers. Be patient till they have loaded them- 
selves with the encumbrances of wealth. The possession will divide 
their councils and assure your victory." 

Meanwhile he collected a motley army — Goths and Romans, Franks 
and Germans. When the two armies met six days were spent in sparring 
for position, with only desultory fighting. On the seventh day occurred 



230 The Teutonic Peoples 

the great battle. The Mohammedan leader was killed. His army, 
after great numbers had been slain, retired to their camp at night, but 
hastened away to the southward before the coming of daylight. Sorne 
time later they recrossed the Pyrenees. Martel and his valiant army 
had won a famous victory which the world will never forget. 

Questions and Topics. — I. What significance would you attach to 
the fact that the Teutonic invaders were converted to Christianity? 
Who were the monks and how did they employ their time? What is 
meant by the papal power? What do you know about Leo the Great? 
Describe the conversion of England and Germany to Christianity. 

II. Tell about the early life of Mohammed. What is meant by the 
Hegira? In what way did Mohammed decide to propagate his religion? 
Name some points of difference between Mohammedanism and Chris- 
tianity. Why is Mohammedanism not succeeding among the great 
enlightened nations of the world ? What importance would you attach 
to the victory of Charles Martel at the battle of Tours? 

Events and Dates. — Conversion of the Germanic invaders to Chris- 
tianity. Leo the Great, d. 461 a.d. Great missionaries, Saints Patrick, 
Augustine, and Boniface. Birth of Mohammed, 570. Conquest of 
Arabia, Mesopotamia, Palestine, North Africa, and_ Spain. Great vic- 
tory of Charles Martel at Tours, 732. 

For Ftirther Reading. — Gardiner, Student's History of England. 
Green, Short History of the English People. In these histories are 
found good short accounts of the Saxon invasion of England, and of the 
conversion of England. If a set of Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the 
Roman Empire is in the library, the pupils should read chapter 7 and 
others at the direction of the teacher. Gibbon gives an excellent 
account of the rise of Mohammedanism. 



CHAPTER XVII 
CHARLEMAGNE AND HIS TIMES 

205. The Kingdom of the Franks. — Of all the Teutonic 
peoples the Franks became the most powerful in the Middle 
Ages. They were the founders of the French nation. King 
Clovis, as we have seen, subdued all his enemies, founded a king- 
dom, and established Christianity there (sec. 194). But many 
of the Merovingian kings, the descendants of Clovis, were weak 
in comparison. The chief officer in the kingdom was the mayor 
of the palace, and this officer in time became far more powerful 
than his master. It is said that the king had nothing to do but 
to wear flowing hair and a long beard and sit on the throne and 
play the ruler. 

It was the mayors of the palace, after Clovis, that made the 
Franks a great nation. One of these mayors was the Charles 
M artel who defeated the Mohammedan legions at the battle of 
Tours (sec. 204). 

Charles Martel died in 741, and his son Pep'in succeeded him 
as mayor of the palace. Pepin determined to make himself king 
in name as well as in power. The old king was thereupon shorn 
of his long hair and beard and sent to a monastery; and in 751 
Pepin was anointed King of the Franks by Saint Boniface, the 
Apostle of Germany (sec. 202). 

Not many years after this the pope had occasion to call upon 
Pepin for assistance. The Lombards, who had been the strongest 
power in Italy for two hundred years, were threatening to cap- 
ture Rome. At the pope's call Pepin came to Italy, defeated 
the Lombards, and established the pope as ruler of the " Papal 
States" or " States of the Church," a strip of land extending from 
Rome entirely across the peninsula. This grant to the pope, 

231 



232 The Teutonic Peoples 

known as " The Donation of Pepin," was made in 754; and the 
resulting " temporal power " of the pope, as monarch of an Italian 
province, continued for more than iioo years, — until i860. 

206. Charlemagne, — Here and there in the world's history 
we find a character who stands out grandly conspicuous among 
his fellows, a character who makes an impress on his race never 
to be effaced. One of these was Charlemagne (shar'le-man, the 
French form of the Latin Car'olus Magnus, Charles the Great), 
son of Pepin. Charlemagne was born the year after the death 
of his grandfather, Charles Martel. He was a tall man, though 
his father is known in history as Pepin the Short. The kings 
descended from Charlemagne are called the Carolin'gian dynasty. 

A mass of legend and romance grew up about the name of 
Charlemagne after his death, but aside from this, history in- 
forms us that his career was one of the most notable in the annals 
of Europe. He was the greatest figure of the Middle Ages. 

Perhaps no other layman in the history of the church did so 
much for its upbuilding as Charlemagne, but his methods were 
not always in accord with Christian principles. He united nearly 
all of western and central Europe in one great empire and pre- 
pared the way for the founding of the great nations of modern 
times. Charlemagne was an untiring warrior. He made fifty- 
three campaigns. 

207. Charlemagne Conquers the Saxons. — The most notable 
achievement of the great Prankish king was the conquest of the 
Saxons. In this he was engaged at intervals for thirty-two years. 
The Saxons occupied territory east of the Rhine, extending to 
the Elbe River on the east and to the North and Baltic seas on the 
north. While their fellow Teutonic tribes, the Franks, the Goths, 
the Lombards, and others had been converted to Christianity, 
the Saxons had remained barbarians and pagans. They had no 
cities, and when hard pressed by an enemy they could easily 
pack up their belongings and flee into the forests. To conquer 
them was a difficult task, but Charlemagne persisted till all 
Saxony was added to his empire. 



Charlemagne and his Times 233 

For two reasons Charlemagne desired to make subjects of the 
Saxons — because they were a menace to his kingdom and be- 
cause he wished to convert them to Christianity. It was con- 
trary to the Christian spirit to make converts by force, but the 
Prankish king disregarded this and gave his captives their choice 
between baptism and death. He decreed the sentence of death 
or other severe punishment for all who paid homage to their 
old gods or refused to have their children baptized before they 
were a year old. 

208. Extension of the Kingdom. — The long contest with the 
Saxons was not continuous, and some of the intervals were taken 
up with campaigns in other directions. 

One of his campaigns was into Spain against the Mohammedans 
or Saracens (sar'a-senz), often called the Moors, who had over- 
thrown the kingdom of the Visigoths (sec. 204). The Franks 
won an easy victory, capturing towns and castles and taking 
possession of the country north of the Ebro River. But the 
Moors continued to occupy the greater part of Spain for seven 
hundred years longer. 

The Danes, who were troublesome pirates, the Bava'rians, 
and many other peoples were subdued by the restless Charle- 
magne. One of the most notable conquests was that of the Lom- 
bards in Italy. After their conquest by Pepin (sec. 205), the 
Lombards rose again and the pope appealed to the Prankish 
king; Charlemagne came and utterly destroyed the Lombard 
power and was himself crowned king of the Lombards. 

Charlemagne created a vast empire extending from the At- 
lantic Ocean to the Elbe and the Danube, and from the North 
and Baltic Seas to the Mediterranean. The fame and glory of 
the great monarch of the Franks spread over the world and 
kings and rulers of other countries sent him letters of homage, 
some even calling themselves his servants. 

209. Founding of the Holy Roman Empire. — In the year 800. 
on Christmas Day, while Charlemagne was kneeling in St. Peter's 
Church at Rome, Pope Leo III suddenly placed a crown of 

EL. M. T. — 16 



234 



The Teutonic Peoples 



gold on his liead and those j^resent hailed him as emperor. The 
king seemed surprised and later said that he would not have 
entered the church had he known what was to happen ; but it 
is certain he had long contemplated the restoration of the 
Western Empire which had been ended by Odoacer more than 
three hundred _years before (sec. 193). 




Pope Leo III Crowning Charlemagne 
From a modem painting in Paris. 

From this time he was called emperor, and the Western Em- 
pire, thus revived, remained apart from the Eastern Empire, the 
two flourishing side by side until the capture of Constantinople 
by the Turks six and a half centuries later. 

This revival of the Western Empire in 800 was a great event 
in European history. France was soon cut off, and later Italy, 
and in time the empire meant little else than Germany ; but in 
spite of this it came later to be called the Holy Roman Empire 



Charlemagne and his Times 235 

and it played a great part in European politics for a thousand 
years. 

210. Home Life of Charlemagne. — Charlemagne was strong 
and robust, with large, round head, short neck, brilliant eyes, and 
a merry, laughing face. His step was firm and manly, and his 
dress, except on state occasions, was the plain garb of the Franks. 
He was fond of riding and hunting, temperate in eating and drink- 
ing, with the greatest abhorrence of drunkenness. He was of a 
most kindly nature and liberal in feeding the poor. When he 
went on long journeys he took his sons and daughters with him. 
He never permitted his daughters to marry, declaring that he 
could not dispense with their society. 

Charlemagne did all in his power to foster education. He 
issued orders to the clergy to gather the children of their neigh- 
borhoods and teach them to read. He called learned men to 
his court, the most famous of whom was Al'cuin of England, 
the most learned man of his time. The emperor himself was a 
diligent student, giving much time to learning langliages, rhetoric, 
logic, and astronomy. He learned chiefly by hearing lectures, as 
he was himself scarcely able to read. 

He made Aix-la-Chapelle (sha-pel') his capital and in that 
city he built a magnificent church and furnished it luxuriously. 
A great many churches were built by his orders and at his ex- 
pense in various parts of his empire. 

After a long reign of nearly forty-seven years Charlemagne 
died of fever at the age of seventy-one (814). 

211. Breaking up of the Empire; Treaty of Verdun. — The 
death of Charlemagne meant also the shattering of the great 
empire he had built up. His son and successor, Louis the Pious, 
lacked all the great qualities of his father. The many peoples 
who had been brought under one government were so unlike in 
their customs and ideals that only a strong hand could hold them 
together. Louis was weak and incapable. Moreover, when in 
his later years he attempted to divide his possessions among his 
sons, they fought with one another and with their father. 



236 



The Teutonic Peoples 



Louis died in 840, and three years later his three sons made the 
famous treaty of Verdun, by which the extensive empire of their 
grandfather was broken into three grand divisions. Charles, 
who is known in history as Charles the Bald, received the western 
section, which later became France ; Louis, who came to be known 
as Louis the German, received the greater part of what became 
Germany and Austria. Between these two was a great section 
running through the heart of Europe by way of the Rhine Valley 




Costumes of Prankish Ladies of the Nobility, Ninth Century 

Illumination in the Bible of Charles the Bald, National Library, Paris. The ladies 
can evidently read, for all are holding rolls of parchment or manuscript books. 

from the North Sea to and including Italy. This was awarded 
to Lothair', the eldest of the brothers, and it was he who retained 
the title of emperor. 

The middle kingdom at length fell to pieces, and parts of it, as 
Alsace (al-sas') and Lorraine (lo-ran'), have been the object of 
strife between France and Germany from that day to the present. 

The treaty of Verdun did not bring a lasting peace. Again in 
the treaty of Mersen (870) a final division was attempted ; but 
the descendants of Charlemagne continued to fight one another. 
In addition to domestic turmoil these rulers were obliged to de- 



Charlemagne and his Times 237 

fend their lands from invasions on all sides. The Slavs made 
bloody incursions from the east ; the daring Northmen came 
down from Scandinavia, seized and occupied many towns and 
forts ; the Saracens of North Africa seized Sicily and terrorized 
Italy and southern France. In fact, for two or three centuries 
after the death of Charlemagne Europe was a seething caldron 
of rival rulers and struggling nations. The history of the wars of 
this period would interest us but little. We shall pass on to a 
notice of some of the institutions of the Middle Ages. 

Questions and Topics. — Describe the personal appearance of Charle- 
magne ; his home life, his conquests, his crowning. What did he do 
for education? Why did his empire not hold together after his death? 
What notable treaty was made by his three grandsons ? What portion 
of the empire fell to each? Which in your opinion is better for civili- 
zation, great empires or small independent nations? What reasons 
would you give for your opinion? 

Events and Dates. — • Reign of Charlemagne, 768-814, the greatest 
character of the Middle Ages ; crowned at Rome in 800. By the treaty 
of Verdun, 843, his three grandsons divided the empire. Since then 
France and Germany have remained apart. 

For Further Reading. — The life of Charlemagne by Eginhard or 
Einhard, a confidential friend, is a short, interesting book that can easily 
be obtained in English translation. It has been pronounced " one of 
the most precious bequests of the early middle ages." Hodgkin's 
Charles the Great is an excellent brief biography; also Davis's Charle- 
magne in the " Heroes of the Nations " series. Robinson's Readings 
in European History, I, 131-134. A good short account of Charle- 
magne and his empire will be found in Chap. V of General History oj 
Europe by Thatcher and Schevill. 



THE LIFE OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

CHAPTER XVIII 
FEUDALISM AND CHIVALRY 

I. Feudalism 

212. Rise of Feudalism; Lords and Vassals. — Within a 
century or two after the death of Charlemagne his empire was 
broken into many parts. The nominal rulers of the sections were 
called kings, and usually one of them retained the title of emperor. 
These rulers, however, could not govern their own dominions ; 
the real power was in the hands of- the great nobles, who were 
independent of one another and but slightly dependent upon the 
king. 

In the early times when money was scarce the king often paid 
his chief ofificers in land. This land became hereditary, and the 
oflfice also. These great landholders were said to hold their 
estates in fief or in feud from the king. They became almost 
sovereign rulers, and though they were supposed to owe the king 
their allegiance and service, it often happened that they rendered 
no service. They were independent. Their estates were so 
extensive that they again parceled them out to others and these 
still again to a lower class. 

A landlord who thus parceled out his domains was called a lord, 
a liege, or suzerain ; each man receiving a fief was his vassal, or 
liegeman. 

The great lords or nobles, though nominal vassals of the king, 
had the right to make laws, keep troops, and coin money, but 
these privileges were not granted to the lower suzerains. When a 
vassal received a fief from a lord he went through a ceremony 
called paying homage. Kneeling before the lord, he placed his 

23S 



Feudalism 



239 



hands within the hands of the lord, declaring himself the lord's 
" man " (Latin, homo, whence the word homage), and took an oath 
that he would faithfully perform the duties of a vassal. 

This land system called feudalism was very extensive ; during 
the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries it held in its 
iron grasp nearly all the land in central and western Europe. In 
France during the Middle Ages there were perhaps 1 50 overlords, 
each holding an immense estate. These great estates were sub- 




Vassal Doing Homage to his King 
From an illuminated manuscript of the ninth century. 

divided into about 70,000 fiefs or smaller estates. The lord often 
bore such title as duke, earl, count, or baron. Often he was 
ignorant and rough. He scorned every occupation but that of 
arms. He lived among boisterous companions as rough and 
ignorant as himself. 

Churches, monasteries, and priests were often vassals of some 
suzerain ; but the higher churchmen, bishops and archbishops, 
were not infrequently themselves suzerains with vassals dependent 
on them. 

213. Duties of Lords and Vassals. — The great duty of the 
lord to his vassal was to protect him from wrong and injustice, 
and his lands from invasion. 



240 The Life of the Middle Ages 

The duty of the vassal was to render service to his master. For 
his lands he might be required to pay an annual rental, or part of 
the produce, or both. He was also subject to special taxes. 
When the lord knighted his eldest son, or gave the eldest daughter 
in marriage, he would demand a sum of money from his vassal. 
When a vassal died, his son on entering upon the estate had to 
pay to the lord his entire income for a year. A bishop or priest 
had to pay his lord his first year's salary after his appointment. 

But the chief duty of the vassal was to serve his liege lord in 
war. This service was limited to forty days in a year. Fighting 
in the Middle Ages was chiefly on horseback. If the lord was 
unhorsed in battle, his vassal had to give him his own horse ; if 
in special danger, the vassal defended him with his life, and if the 
lord was taken prisoner, his vassal offered himself as a hostage. 

214. Serfs and Freemen. — The great mass of the people were 
the peasants who toiled in the fields and at the grist mills, earn- 
ing their own living as well as that of their masters. They were 
divided into two classes, — serfs and freemen. 

The slavery of the Roman Empire gradually merged into the 
serfdom of the Middle Ages. The serfs could not be bought and 
sold as slaves, but they were attached to the soil ; that is, they 
were not allowed to leave the estate on which they were bom. 
When an estate changed owners, the serfs went with the estate. 

The freemen were peasant vassals but were not bound to one 
spot. Many of them had been owners of little farms but were 
forced to give them up through the greed of stronger men, or, as 
frequently happened, they voluntarily gave up their lands and 
received them back as fiefs in order to secure protection from 
barbarians and robbers. An estate was called a manor or vill, 
and from the latter word the tenants were called villains. From 
it also we get the word village and also the final syllable of the 
names of many of our towns, as Louisville, Zanesville. 

The suzerain was often a tyrant, and the lot of the peasants was 
a hard one. They lived in ignorance and squalor in miserable 
one-room huts without windows or chimneys. Life was a dreary, 




January, Plowing 




March, Breaking up the Soil, Sowing, Harrowing 




December, Threshing (with flails) and Winnowing 
English Farm Lite 

From an iUuminated calendar of the eleventh century in the British Museum 

241 



242 The Life of the Middle Ages 

monotonous grind generation after generation. Whatever they 
earned above the necessities of Ufe was required by the landlord. 
But as human nature always finds a way of being happy, we can 
imagine that with their brown bread and beer, with their holidays 
and their neighborhood life, there was many a bright spot on the 
dark canvas. 

The suzerain required a portion of everything the peasant pro- 
duced on the little farm allotted to him — grain, hay, fruits, 
stock, chickens, and eggs. He also collected a fee for pasturing 
stock in the forest, or for fishing in the streams. The peasant 
could not be deprived of his bit of soil, usually about 30 acres ; 
but he was obliged to grind his wheat at his lord's mill, to bake 
his bread at his lord's oven, and to press his grapes at his lord's 
winepress, and for all these a heavy toll was charged. In addi- 
ition to all this the villain had to work two or three days a week 
for his lord, tilling his fields, caring for his crops, and keeping his 
castle and other buildings in repair. In rare cases the peasant 
had to work for his master six days in the week, cultivating his 
own little patch by moonlight and on Sunday. Man 3^ of the 
peasants ran away, and if a fugitive could keep from being 
captured for a year and a day he remained free. 

215. The Medieval Castle. — A present-day traveler in Eul^ope 
is impressed by the ruins of many a great stone castle crowning a 
hilltop or perched on some rocky cliff, approachable from one 
side onl}^ On closer examination he will find some of the castles 
in a good state of preservation, others in moldering ruins. They 
are the remains of manorial castles of the feudal lords. They are 
voices of the past, and all date from the Middle Ages. Many 
hundreds of them are scattered over England and the Continent. 

The walls of these castles are often found to be ten or fifteen 
feet thick, with turrets and battlements and lofty towers pierced 
b^'' small windows. Around the castle where the ground would 
admit there was a deep ditch or moat. This was filled with water 
and was spanned by a bridge that could be removed by pulleys in 
time of attack. 




A Medieval Castle (Restored) 



The largest round tower, called the donjon, was often 200 feet high and 100 feet 
in diameter, with walls in some places 30 feet thick. Smaller towers, a moat, 
and high walls also protected the great fortress. The entrance to the castle was 
over a drawbridge crossing the moat. In time of attack the drawbridge was 
raised and the portcuUis, a heavy grating of wood, was lowered across the gateway. 
The walls were defended by bowmen who rained down arrows on the enemy or 
dropped stones or melted lead from the battlements. The lord of the castle lived 
with his family in a series of rooms, including the great hall, that faced the inner 

courtyard. 

243 



244 The Life of the Middle Ages 

It is plain to be seen that these castles were fortresses as well as 
homes of the manorial lords, and their existence in such numbers 
indicates that they were the product of an age of private and local 
warfare. 

In the earlier centuries wooden towers were erected for defense, 
all of which have disappeared. In the eleventh century these 
began to be replaced by stone castles ; but after the invention 
of gunpowder and the manufacture of cannon (fourteenth century) 
even the stone castle was no longer built, as no walls could 
be made so strong that they could not be battered down with 
cannon balls. 

216. Fighting in Armor. — The king made no pretense of 
preventing his vassals, the great baronial lords, from fighting one 
another. Their chief business was fighting. They fought not 
only for gain and for self-protection, but also because they loved 
to fight. Work was considered ignoble. The feudal peasants 
had to do the work. The noble was a warrior, and nothing but 
a warrior. The cliamping of the war horse, the rattling of the 
saber, were music in the ears of the knight of the Middle Ages. 
If a knight, as the fighting lord was usually called, sent his glove 
or some hair from his fur mantle to his adversary, it was a challenge 
to battle. Without books or newspapers, and with no work to do, 
life was monotonous in. the feudal castle. War was a diversion 
and a pastime. 

Frequently these petty wars were not very bloody. A knight 
was usually not desirous of killing his adversary ; he preferred to 
take him prisoner, whereupon he would demand a heavy ransom 
for his release. When a lord was taken prisoner his vassals would 
scurry the country round to raise the means for securing his 
ransom. 

A knight in battle wore complete armor. His coat of mail was 
made of iron rings. It was called a hauberk. The head was 
protected by a helmet of steel. His weapons were a short steel 
sword and a long lance usually made of ashwood. With this 
equipment he fought on horseback. One had to practice for 



Chivalry 245 

years to become skilled in this sort of fighting, but when thor- 
oughly trained one could fight without great danger of being 
killed. Many of the knights were ignorant, unable to read. Some 
were lawless freebooters, who made raids about the country, 
destroying property and stealing what they could. These were 
mere highway robbers and were known as the Robber Knights. 
Ordinarily, however, knighthood carried with it a certain sense of 
honor and fair dealing. 

II. Chivalry 

217. Knighthood and Chivalry. — Knighthood, the rank and 
profession of knights, embraced the military ideals of feudalism. 
Chivalry ^ was the heroic and romantic features of knighthood. 
A Christian warrior was called a knight, and his aim was to be 
chivalrous, that is, to cultivate honor, courtesy to women, dex- 
terity at arms, and undaunted courage in battle. As a military 
order chivalry undertook to protect the church and defend the 
weak. 

The knight was a trained cavalryman. He loved all that was 
romantic or heroic ; he was full of reckless daring in battle, but 
generous to an enemy. 

To become a knight a long course of training was required. At 
the age of seven years the boy was sent to the castle of some 
noble. Part of his time he spent with the lord of the castle as 
cupbearer and the like, and part with the ladies of the estate, 
where he learned the etiquette of the court. After seven years of 
such service the lad became a squire, which means attendant. 
During the next seven years he served his master in the chase, 
in the tournament, and in battle. He held the knight's horse 
and replaced his broken lance with a new one. When not attend- 
ing his master the youthful squire waited on the ladies of the castle, 
walked with them in the parks, or rode by their side in the chase. 

During all this time the youth was looking forward longingly 

1 The word chivalry is from a word that means horse, from which we also get our 
word cavalry. 



246 



The Life of the Middle Ages 



to the time when the reward for his long service would be his, 
when he would be crowned with knighthood. The ceremony 
leading to knighthood was very impressive. The knight-to-be, 
after a long fast, knelt humbly and made a solemn vow to be true 
to his religion and faithful to the ladies. His lord then struck 
him genth^ on the shoulder with his sword, a ceremony known as 
the accolade, and pronounced him a knight. Having received his 
sword and armor, he proudly mounted his prancing steed in its 




Ceremony of Knighthood 

From an illuminated manuscript at Oxford University. After the accolade, the 

newly made knight was armed with sword, spurs, shield, and lance. The picture 

shows also how a coat of mail was drawn over the knight's head. 

glittering trappings, and thus began his life on horseback — the 
life of a knight. 

218. The Tournament. — The tournament was a sham battle 
on horseback. It was a rough play in which only knights engaged, 
and its purpose was to exhibit their courage and their skill in 
horsemanship and arms. Great crowds gathered to witness the 
exhibition. A beautiful woman of noble family was chosen 
queen of the tournament and she occupied the most prominent 
seat among the spectators. 

In a spacious arena, in full armor and armed with lances, the 




A Tournament 



Chivalry 247 

knights would ride toward each other at full speed and as they 
met each tried to strike the other from his horse. If neither 
succeeded they tried again and again. If both were unhorsed 
they often continued the combat on foot until one had overcome 
his antagonist. The victor would then receive a garland of 
flowers from his lady as his reward of victory.' 

For three or four centuries the tournament was the popular 
game, though it often resulted in the death of one or more com- 
batants. At one tournament in 1240 sixty knights lost their 
lives. A tournament in Paris in 1559 brought death to Henry II, 
king of France. Chiefly on account of this tragedy the tourna- 
ment fell into disfavor and was at length abandoned. 

219. The Good and the Bad in Feudalism and Chivalry. — 
Two serious faults must be found with the feudal knight. First, he 
fostered the caste system, and never learned to recognize the rights 
of his inferiors. Second, he made warfare the chief if not the 
sole business of his life. 

But the merits of the feudal system will perhaps outweigh its 
defects. The peasants, in that age of disorder, were doubtless 
better off under the protection of a feudal master than in the 
earlier centuries when lawless, wandering tribes devastated the 
land. Moreover, the feudal peasants learned to toil and to become 
self-reliant and strong. Their moral and religious standard was 
high. They became a stout yeomanry and they laid the founda- 
tion of a future civilization. 

Chivalry made men more honorable, religious, and truthful, and 
it placed woman in a position of honor unknown before in the 
world's history. The mistress of the feudal castle and her daugh- 
ters were held in the highest esteem, not for their culture, for they 
had little, but because of their virtuous lives based on a solid 
religious foundation. 

Side Talks 

Books and Writing in the Middle Ages. — One of the causes of the 
widespread illiteracy of the early Middle Ages was the scarcity of 
books. The Romans wrote their books on Egyptian papyrus (sec. 26) 



248 The Life of the Middle Ages 

or on parchment, and in time the rolled book gave place to the book 
composed of sheets bound together. After the Saracens conquered 
Egypt in the seventh century, papyrus could no longer be had from 
that country, and as parchment was expensive, books became very 
rare and of great value. It was not unusual for a book to be written 
on parchment from which some former writing had been erased. From 
this cause it is probable that many important works of the ancients 
perished. In the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries books were so 
scarce and so expensive that none but the rich could afford to own them. 
A French countess paid for a single book 200 sheep, five quarters 
(quarter tons) of wheat, and the same amount of rye and millet. 

In the eleventh century the art of making paper was introduced into 
Spain by the Moors. From there it spread to Italy and later to France 
and Germany, and still later to England. Paper was made by hand 
from rags and plant fiber. After the introduction of paper making the 
writing of books was greatly stimulated and the educational standard 
of certain classes steadily rose. Many books made in the Middle 
Ages are still in existence and some of them are of great value. In 1901 
Mr. J. P. Morgan of New York purchased of an English earl the famous 
Lindau Gospels, ornamented with gold and jewels, for $50,000. 

How People Lived in the Middle Ages.^ — In the center of the town or 
village stood the church and parsonage, and near them was the manor 
house with its dovecot and its near-by mill for grinding the corn of the 
tenants. The manor house in which lived the lord of the manor was 
built of stone or of timber. The peasant homes were dirty hovels 
covered with turf, sometimes with thatch. None of them had chim- 
neys. " Moreover, there were no brick houses. It is a curious fact 
that the art of making bricks seems to have been lost in England for 
some hundreds of years. The laborer's dwelling had no windows; 
the hole in the roof which let out the smoke rendered windows un- 
necessary. . . . The laborer's fire was in the middle of the house; 
he and his wife and children huddled around it, sometimes groveling 
in the ashes, and going to bed meant flinging themselves down upon the 
straw which served them as mattress and feather bed." 

Their food was the coarsest. " The poor man's loaf was as black as 
mud, and as tough as his shoe leather." The poor had plenty of fuel in 
winter, composed of turf, " but the poor horses and sheep and cattle 
were half starved for at least four months in the year, and one and all 

1 This is a picture of peasant life in England in the reign of Edward I (about 1300) 
adapted and partly quoted from Jessopp's The Coming of the Friars and Other 
Historic Essays. 



Peasants, Jesters . . 249 

were much smaller than they are now." Salt was secured by evaporat- 
ing sea water. It was high-priced and the poor had but little of it, and 
seldom did they taste sugar. They ate cabbage and carrots and beets, 
but potatoes and tea and coffee and tobacco were unknown. ... " x\s 
for the dress of the working classes, it was hardly dress at all — a kind 
of tunic leaving the arms and legs bare, with a girdle of rope or leather 
around the waist. The laws against crime were very severe, there 
being more than two hundred offenses for which the penalty was death." 
Court Fools and Jesters. — A curious custom of the Middle Ages was 
the keeping of professional fun makers in the palaces of great baronial 
lords and especially at the courts of kings. These, especially in the 
earlier period, were of two classes known as the court fools and the 
jesters. The fool was a half-witted person fantastically dressed. He 
was kept for the purpose of making merriment for the master and the 
faniily and guests, especially at mealtime, as laughter was considered 
an aid to digestion. The foolish pranks and talk of the fool were 
deemed amusing and kept the company in a merry mood. The fool 
had no social standing and often he had to get a living as best he could, 
sometimes even eating with the dogs. The jester, on the other hand, 
was a man of ready wit, quick at repartee, apt in telling stories, frolic- 
some and good-humored and often well educated. Frequently he was 
the constant companion of the king or the noble who employed him. 
The custom of employing fools and jesters at king's courts persisted far 
into modern times and was not abandoned in some countries before the 
nineteenth century. 

Questions and Topics. — How did the great lords of the Middle 
Ages obtain their lands? What were their powers in relation to their 
vassals? Describe the home life of the serf. What training was nec- 
essary for knighthood? Describe the tournament and state why it 
came to be abandoned. Does our modern game of football bear any 
resemblance to the tournament? Which is better in your opinion, 
for a country to be divided into great estates, or into small tracts 
farmed by the owners ? Why? 

For Further Reading. — Emerton, Introduction to the Study of the 
Middle Ages. Seignobos, The Feudal Regime. Interesting readings 
from the sources may be found in Ogg, Source Book of Medieval 
History, Robinson, Readings in European History, Vol. I, and in the 
source book by Thatcher and McNeal. See also Thatcher and Schevill, 
Europe in the Middle Age, ch. XI. 



EL. M. T. — ij 



CHAPTER XIX 
PAPACY AND EMPIRE; THE CRUSADES 

I. The Papacy and the Empire ^^■i 

220. Henry the Fowler and Otto the Great. — For several* 
hundred years after the time of Charlemagne we find few great 
names in European history. Disorder and confusion reigned on 
all sides and, as stated in the preceding chapter, the lands were 
divided into great baronial estates, each under the control of a 
feudal master. 

Henry the Fowler was so called because when informed that he 
was elected king of Germany he was hunting in the Harz (harts) 
Mountains with a falcon on his wrist. Henry was a successful 
ruler. He built many cities ; he waged successful wars against 
the Danes and the Slavs, and it was on the foundations he laid 
that Otto, his more famous son, began the building of the German 
nation. 

Otto the Great (936-973) was a bold and restless king. Otto 
brought the great German dukes, holding the vast feudal estates, 
under his sway and made himself really king. 

Next he addressed himself to the Slavs, who had been encroach- 
ing on German territory, and to the Hunga'rians, whose incursions 
were similar to those of the Huns under Attila five hundred 
years before. Otto succeeded in driving out or Germanizing the 
Slav invaders, and his success against the Hungarians was still 
greater. 

Henry the Fowler had paid heavy tribute to the Hungarians to 
keep them from devastating his lands. Otto would do nothing 
of the kind. He met the invading hordes in battle near Augsburg 
(955) and defeated them with great slaughter^ It was said that 

250 



The Papacy and the Empire 



251 



100,000 Hungarians perished in this battle. Soon after this the 
Hungarian people were converted to Christianity and settled 
quietly in what is now Hun'gary, where they have remained to 
this day. 

Italy in the meantime was in great disorder, and thither went 
the German king. The papacy, which had been so strong in the 
times of Leo the Great 
(sec. 201) and Gregory 
the Great (sec. 202), 
had fallen to a low es- 
tate. The popes were 
chosen by the warring 
factions of the Roman 
nobility, and some- 
times there were two 
or three at a time, each 
claiming to be the true 
pope. 

King Otto subdued 
the Roman nobles, 
annexed Italy to his 
dominions, and was 
crowned emperor by 
the pope in 962. For 
many years thereafter 
Germany and Italy 
constituted the empire. 
The union distracted 
the energies of the em- 
perors and left Ger- 
many broken into sections; but it benefited the Germans by 
bringing them into contact with Italian art, learning, and culture. 

221. Pope Gregory VII. — ■ For nearly a century after the time 
of Otto the Great no strong man appeared as head of the empire. 
Some of the emperors were decidedly corrupt and gave free rein 




A King Hunting with Falcons 

From an illuminated manuscript of the fourteenth 
century. Falcons, a species of hawk, were trained 
to take game and were very widely used by sports- 
men in the Middle Ages. 



252 



The Life of the Middle Ages 




Holy Roman Empire about iooo a. d. 



to the practice of sim'ony.i Meantime the papacy had been 
growing stronger, and the time was at hand when a serious con- 
flict was to break out between the church and the empire. The 

' Simony means the selling of church offices. The word comes from the name 
of Simon the sorcerer (Acts VIII, 20), who offered the apostle Peter money for the 
power to confer the Holy Spirit by the laying on of hands. 



The Papacy and the Empire 253 

papacy was greatly strengthened by a reform in the method of 
choosing the popes. It was now definitely settled that the pope 
should always be elected (for life, of course) by the cardinals. 
The cardinals are princes of the church, members of the pope's 
council, appointed (for life) by the pope. 

Pope Gregory VII was one of the greatest figures of the Middle 
Ages. His earlier name was Hil'debrand. Born in Italy in 1018, 
he was educated in Rome. He became the adviser of the popes 
and for many years was the power behind the papal throne. He 
was a man of affairs, tactful, diplomatic, of boundless energy, 
though not personally ambitious ; also, he was a man of pure 
moral life, of sincere motives, of an iron will. He saw the great 
need of reform in the church. 

In 1073 Hildebrand ascended the papal chair and took the 
name of Gregory VII. One of the first changes he brought about 
was with reference to the married clergy. An old rule of the 
church was that priests should not marry, but many of them 
disregarded it. Thousands of priests were living with their 
wives. Gregory ordered them to put away their wives and 
forbade all others to marry. There was wide and vehement 
protest against this ruling, but in the end the rule became universal 
in the Roman Catholic Church. 

Two other reforms that Pope Gregory determined to bring 
about were to put a stop to simony and to take from emperor 
and kings the power of investiture. By investiture is meant the 
investing or conferring, on bishops and abbots, of their offices 
and the lands that went with the offices. For a long time the 
secular rulers had been doing this, but Gregory contended that 
this power belonged to the head of the church and to him alone. 

As to investiture, Gregory warned the kings of France, Ger- 
many, and England to abandon the practice, with the threat of ex- 
communication if they did not heed. To excommunicate was to 
declare one out of communion with the church. It was a punish- 
ment much dreaded, and often inflicted in the Middle Ages. 

Moreover, Gregory took the high ground that the pope is, above 



254 The Life of the Middle Ages 

all earthly powers, and that all other bishops, all kings, and em- 
perors may be set up or deposed by him. 

222. Emperor Henry IV. — The greatest conflict Gregory had 
was with Henry IV, emperor of Germany. Henry was an able 
ruler, but his many blunders, his want of high character, and 
especially his unfortunate quarrel with the pope, left him an 
unenviable name in history. When Gregory summoned Henry 
to Rome to answer certain charges, the emperor haughtily refused, 
and the pope pronounced on him a sentence of excommunication. 
Henry was still defiant, but as the great majority of his subjects 
believed the pope to be the true head of the church, they began 
to desert their king, and he soon found that the only way he could 
save his crown was to seek pardon of Gregory. Crossing the 
Alps through the snows of midwinter, the emperor met Gregory 
at the castle of Canossa in Italy. At length Henry was absolved 
and received back into the church. 

But the troubles were not ended. Henry again became defiant 
and again the pope excommunicated him. This time the German 
people, believing the pope too severe, sided with their emperor. 
Henry took courage, marched into Italy with an army, seized 
Rome, and drove the pope out of the city. Gregory died in 1085. 
His last words were, " I have loved justice and hated iniquity, 
therefore I die an exile." 

Henry's turbulent reign continued many years longer. His 
German vassals, including his own son, revolted against him. 
He lost his crown and died broken-hearted in 1106. 

The controversy about investitures was finally settled by the 
Concordat of Worms (vorms) in 1122, when it was agreed that 
the pope should control the election of bishops and abbots as 
officers of the church, while the king or emperor retained the 
power to confer their lands upon them. Practically this meant 
that either pope or emperor could reject an unfit candidate. 

223. Later Relations of Popes and Monarchs. — The series of 
bitter quarrels between popes and rulers, as noted above, marked 
the beginning of the complete triumph of the church over the state. 



The Crusades 255 

In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the popes were generally 
stronger than kings or emperors, and the .monarchs of Western 
Europe were subject to their will. Then came a change. The 
French, German, and English kings gradually persuaded their 
people that their authority in secular affairs came directly from 
God and not through the pope. The people remained true to 
the church, believing in the spiritual leadership of the pope ; but 
in secular matters they regarded their sovereign as supreme. The 
sovereigns, therefore, supported by their people, finally made 
themselves independent of the pope in matters pertaining to their 
governments. 

II. The Crusades 

224. Causes and Meaning of the Crusades. — The Middle 
Ages furnish no event or series of events more visionary and 
impractical, more romantic and picturesque, than the series of 
enthusiastic religious uprisings in Europe known as the crusades. 

The crusades were a succession of wholesale pilgrimages and 
religious wars for the purpose of recovering Palestine or the Holy 
Land, and especially the Holy Sepulcher of Christ, from the control 
of the Mohammedans. Wave after wave of restless humanity 
swept from Europe into Asia. Men, women, and children, hun- 
dreds of thousands of them, went on these pious pilgrimages. 
As usually stated, there were seven crusades beginning in 1096 
and covering at intervals nearly 200 years, but during the intervals 
there were small bands or individual pilgrims almost every year 
throughout the entire period. 

In the motley crowds that went to the Orient were kings and 
princes, nobles, knights and vassals, bishops and monks. On 
horseback and on foot, armed and unarmed, they made their 
way across rugged mountains and wide rivers and boisterous seas. 
Badly organized and without strong leadership, they encountered 
war and pestilence and famine. They perished in unnumbered 
thousands, and only a small fraction of them ever returned to 
the homes they had left. 



256 The Life of the Middle Ages 

What Mecca was to the Mohammedan, Jerusalem was to the 
Christian — a holy city to which pilgrimages were wont to be 
made. But for more than four centuries the followers of Mo- 
hammed had held control of Jerusalem, and Christian pilgrims 
were often maltreated by the insolent Moslem. During all these 
four hundred years pious Christians of Europe braved the perils 
of INIoslem hostility in order to visit the Holy Land. The pil- 
grimage to Palestine was one of the most popular forms of penance, 
and many a devout Christian would have given his life for the 
privilege of beholding the land where the Saviour's feet had trod 
and especially the tomb in which He had lain. 

Many were the tales of Mohammedan outrages brought back 
by the returning pilgrims. Christian Europe was roused at 
length to religious frenzy. Hence came the crusades,^ so called 
because each pilgrim wore a large red cross on his breast. 

225. The First Crusade. — In the autumn of 1095 a great 
religious gathering was held at Clermont, France. The most 
notable personage present was Pope Urban H, who preached a 
sermon to the assembled multitude that set Europe on fire. He 
pictured the wretched condition of the churches in Asia Minor and 
Palestine on account of the aggression of the Mohammedans. He 
called on Christian Europe to cease private warfare, to join an 
expedition to the East and deliver the holy places from the hands 
of the infidel. While he was yet speaking the answer arose from 
thousands of lips, " It is the will of God. It is the will of God." 

The pope commanded the clergy to preach a holy war and prom- 
ised large spiritual rewards to all who would join in the expedition 
against the Orient. Among those who obeyed was Peter the 
Hermit, who roused the people with his burning eloquence. In 
the spring of 1096 a great army of crusaders moved up the Rhine 
from Cologne, crossed the mountains, passed through the valley 
of the Danube, and reached Constantinople in midsummer. 
Across northern Italy and around the Adriatic came other bands 
in countless numbers. For several years the streams kept flowing 

1 Fron Latin crux, a cross. 




Facing 257 



The Crusades 



257 



and some have estimated the numbers of the first crusade at more 
than half a milhon. 

A great many of the crusaders were truly religious people with 
pure motives ; but others were vagabonds fleeing from debt or 
from their famihes, and still others were roving spirits seeking 
adventure, or vassals fleeing from 



their feudal masters. They were 
very disorderly ; they robbed and 
pillaged along the way. 

From Constantinople they 
crossed into Asia Minor and 
Syria, and the Turkish armies 
met them on the way. The 
crusaders fought valiantly, but 
they were without good leader- 
ship, and the bones of tens of 
thousands of them were left to 
whiten the Syrian plains. The 
survivors kept on ; they captured 
Edes'sa, Antioch (an'ti-6k), and 
many smaller places. They en- 
tered Palestine, and in June, 
1099, came within sight of the 
walls of the Holy City. Burst- 
ing into tears of joy, they re- 
moved their shoes, uncovered 
their heads, and as they marched, 
sang the words of the prophet, 
" Jerusalem, lift up thine eyes, 
and behold the liberator who comes to break thy chains." 

The city was captured by storm, and the crusaders ruthlessly 
massacred thousands of the inhabitants. A Christian govern- 
ment was established. Godfrey, one of the crusaders, was made 
ruler ; but he refused the title of king, declaring that he would not 
wear a crown of gold where his Master had worn a crown of 




Km, of Jeiiisalem, 
1229. 



SCALE OF MILES 



Crusaders' States in Syria 

AFTER THE FiRST CRUSADE 



258 The Life of the Middle Ages 

diorns. In the fall of 1099 part of the surviving crusaders returned 
to Europe ; but others went out to Syria from year to year, and 
kept up the warfare on the Moslems. 

226. Later Crusades. — The second crusade (1147-1149) was 
preached by Saint Bernard and was led by the emperor of Ger- 
many and the king of France. It was more unfortunate than the 
first. The lives of 200,000 men were frittered away in this ill- 
managed undertaking. 

The third crusade was led by three kings — Frederick Bar- 
barossa of Germany, Philip Augustus of France, and Richard, 
king of England, known in history as the Lion-hearted. This 
crusade was inspired by the news of the capture of Jerusalem 
(1187) by a Moslem army led by Sal'adin, a great Mohammedan 
ruler of Egypt. First sorrow and then anger spread over the face 
of Europe when the facts became known. But when the three 
greatest sovereigns in Europe took a vow to join a crusade to 
recover the Holy City, the people applauded and rejoiced. 

The first to enter upon the perilous journey was Frederick. 
With a host of zealous followers he crossed the mountains and 
entered Asia Minor ; but he was dro^vvned in a swollen stream. and 
his followers dispersed and accomplished nothing. 

Richard was a typical knight of the Middle Ages, an Apollo in 
appearance, dauntless in battle, and never so happy as when 
wielding his ponderous battle-ax in front of his columns. Here 
was his opportunity to gratify his insatiable desire to fight, under 
the guise of religion. In order to raise money to equip his army 
for the East, Richard almost looted his kingdom. He sold offices, 
he sold titles of honor and of nobility, he sold castles and royal 
lands and whole towns. Sending his fleet by way of Gibraltar, 
he crossed Europe on horseback (i 190). The next spring we find 
him under the walls of Acre (a'ker) , a city on the coast of Pales- 
tine. For twenty-three months the siege continued, while far 
away on the hills gleamed the myriad spears of the army of 
Saladin ; but Saladin could not rescue the city, and it fell into 
the hands of the crusaders. 



The Crusades 



259 



Philip of France had gone back to his own country, and Richard 
was unable to capture Jerusalem. The best he could do was to 
make terms with Saladin by which the crusading pilgrims were 
permitted to visit the Holy Sepulcher. Having made this 
arrangement, Richard set out for England.^ 




Artillery of the Middle Ages — a Catapult 

Most catapults were great crossbows. The one shown here, however, called also 
an on'ager, was like a great sling. Catapults were used for either offensive or de- 
fensive warfare. The one shown is being employed in the defense of city walls. 
Stones were used as ammunition. 

The results of the third crusade, with all its expenditure of 
treasure and human life, were alm.ost nothing. 

The fourth crusade, a few years later, was turned into an 
invasion of the Eastern Empire, and resulted in the capture of 
Constantinople, which was held by the Westerners for more than 
half a century. 

1 See Side Talk, page 278. 



26o 



The Life of the Middle Ages 



The later crusades showed that the zeal and enthusiasm of 
earlier years were waning. Though equally marked by wholesale 
sacrifice of human life, they were barren of results, and with the 
exception of a very few years Jerusalem was not again recovered 
from the Moslems. In the last of the seven crusades, 1270, 




Louis IX Starting for the Crusades 
From an illuminated manuscript of the thirteenth century. 

France lost one of the noblest of her kings, Louis IX, known 
as Saint Louis. 

227. The Children's Crusade (1212). — The saddest chapter 
in the story of the crusades is the account of the children's 
crusade. In some way the notion spread over France and Ger- 
many that the earlier crusades had failed because of the sinfulness 
of those engaged in them, and that a crusade of innocent children 
would be crowned with success by the favor and blessing of God. 

A boy named Stephen, a French shepherd lad of twelve years, 
began to preach a crusade of the children to the Holy Land. A 
boy named Nicholas became the leader in Germany. These and 
many other boys went from place to place urging the children to 



The Crusades 261 

engage in this gigantic undertaking — • to travel many hundred 
miles by sea and land and to cope with a foe that the greatest 
armies in Europe had failed to overcome ! 

From towns and villages and countryside the little ones gathered 
and started on their long journey, from which few were ever to 
return. Fifty thousand was the estimated number ; the majority 
were boys, but many were girls and nearly all were under twelve 
years of age. The German children crossed the Alps into northern 
Italy. The French children made their way to the Mediterranean 
through southern France. Great numbers of them died along the 
way from hunger and exposure. Some of them went to Rome, 
where the pope. Innocent III, received them kindly; but he 
ordered them to return to their homes and some of them did so. 
The majority of them continued their journey and when they 
reached the sea they expected in their innocence that God would 
open up a way for them that they might cross to Palestine on 
dry land. But the waves rolled on. At length several thousand 
of them embarked in some trading vessels, but the vessels proved 
to be slave ships and the little crusaders were carried to the Mo- 
hammedan slave markets and sold into lifelong bondage. None 
of the children ever reached Palestine ; a few returned to their 
homes, but the great majority perished or were sold into slavery. 

228. The Result of the Crusades. — It is estimated that five 
million people lost their lives in the crusades. Never had there 
been a more disastrous series of wars. Europe had no need to 
conquer Asia. The conquered places soon fell back into the hands 
of the Turks, and so remained until taken by a British army in 
1917-1918. 

The crusades brought little honor to the name of Christ. 
Many of the crusaders were sincerely religious, but a great number 
of them were mere adventurers ; they wasted their energy fighting 
one another and attacking unimportant places. 

But after all, we can see, from the perspective of seven hundred 
years, how from these medieval wars came good never intended 
or dreamed of by the crusaders themselves. 



262 



The Life of the Middle Ages 



First, the crusaders beat back the encroaching Turks, weakened 
their armies, and caused the capture of Constantinople to be 
deferred for several hundred years — until the European nations 
were so strengthened that a universal Mohammedan conquest of 
Europe had become impossible. 

The great positive results of the crusades, moreover, arose 
from the fact that Europe came into contact with the higher and 
finer civilization of the Arabians. Europe, emerging from the 

Dark Ages, knew little of the ancient 
civilization of Babylon and Egypt, 
much of which had been inherited by 
the Arabian Saracens, who must not 
be identified with the barbarous Turks. 
By means of the crusades the Euro- 
peans came into contact with the more 
refined Orient and were vastly im- 
proved by the experience. Through 
the crusades the Arabian horse, the 
donkey, and the mule were introduced 
into Europe, also many articles of com- 
merce, such as rice and cotton, the fig, 
the citron, the watermelon, and the 
pomegranate, and various kinds of 
medicine. Commerce and literature were stimulated, and travel 
between the East and the West was facilitated. The Renaissance 
(ren-e-saNs') in Europe, which followed later, was in a large 
measure an outgrowth of the awakening brought by the crusades. 

1 The order of Knights Templar was created to care for needy crusaders and to 
protect the holy places of Palestine from Saracens and robbers. They were called 
Templars because their headquarters were the ancient site of Solomon's temple. 
Their uniform was a white or black mantle marked with a Maltese cross. The 
Knights Hos'pitalers, or Knights of St. John, with like purposes, began in Jerusa- 
lem, but later took possession of Rhodes and other islands, and finally held the 
island of Malta until 1798. The order of Teutonic Knights, founded last of the 
three, traced its beginnings to the third crusade. The Teutonic order began as a 
charitable society but developed into a military club. In later centuries the Teu- 
tonic Knights conquered East Prussia and other provinces from the Slavs. 




A Knight Templar 1 



The Crusades 263 

Finally, the crusades weakened the power of the feudal barons, 
fostered the growth of towns, and aided in bringing about a great 
middle class of society. Many of- the feudal lords raised sums of 
money for their journey by granting a large measure of liberty to 
the towns and villages over which they had ruled with an iron 
hand. Many of these knights and barons never returned ; others 
who returned were now poor and without the power to reenslave 
their former servants. From this time forth great numbers of 
towns and villages and farmers were free from the grinding heel 
of a feudal master. Feudalism was not destroyed but it was 
weakened by the crusades, and from this time the common people 
felt more and more their own importance, knew better their 
own rights. Thus were laid the foundations of the great middle 
class that constitutes the bone and sinew of the nation in every 
modern European state. 

Questions and Topics. — I. What was the underlying cause of the 
contention between the emperors and the popes? What was the chief 
life work of Otto the Great? What caused the trouble between Henry 
IV and Pope Gregory VII? What is meant by investiture? What was 
the final outcome of the quarrel between the popes and the monarchs? 
Would you pronounce Henry IV a great ruler? 

II. What were the crusades and why so called? When and how did 
the Mohammedans get control of Jerusalem? (Sec. 204.) Describe the 
first crusade ; the children's crusade. In what way did the crusades 
save Constantinople? Why was Arabian civilization superior to Euro- 
pean at this time? In what way did the crusades weaken feudalism? 
Was the weakening of the feudal barons a good thing for the future 
civilization of Europe? Why? 

Events and Dates. — Otto the Great, 936-973 ; Pope Gregory VII, 
1073-1085. First Crusade, 1096-1099. 

For Further Reading. — Stephens, Hildebrand and his Times. 
Bryce, Holy Roman Empire. Ogg, Source Book of Medieval History. 
Robinson, Readings in European History, I, Ch. XIII. Thatcher 
and Schevill, Europe in the Middle Ages, Chs. XII and XIII. Cox, The 
Crusaders. Gray, The Children's Crusade. 



THE NATIONS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

CHAPTER XX 

ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES 

I. Alfred the Great (871-901) 

For various reasons the history of England is more important 
to us Americans than that of any other foreign country. Both 
nations speak the same language and have the same literature. 
Our country and nearly all other civilized countries have appro- 
priated a few great principles of government that were first worked 
out by the English, such as the jury system, the two-chambered 
Parliament, and the judicial process by which one cannot be 
kept in prison or under restraint without warrant of law.^ 

229. England before Alfred. — After the Roman armies were 
withdrawn from Britain, as we have seen, three Teutonic tribes — 
the Angles, the Jutes, and many Saxons — came across the North 
Sea and conquered the country, which was renamed England 
(sec. 196). 

The newcomers did not agree among themselves, and the 
country was soon divided up into small kingdoms, including 
Wessex, Kent, and Northum'bria, each having its own king. 
About the year 827 one of these kings, Egbert of Wessex, conquered 
all the rest and formed one kingdom, the kingdom of England. 

At this time and for many years thereafter the English were 
greatly annoyed by the Northmen, whom they called Danes. 
At first the Danes ravaged only the coast towns, but later they 
penetrated into the interior and took possession of large parts of 
the country. 

1 This is known as habeas corpus. 
264 



England under Alfred the Great 265 

230. Alfred and the Danes. — Alfred was probably the ablest 
king that ever sat on the English throne, and he is the only one to 
be sumamed " the Great." 

In the year 87 1 the English defeated the Danes in the battle of 
Ashdown. Alfred's elder brother, the king, was mortally wounded ; 
at least it is so supposed, for he died soon afterward and Alfred 
became king. For many years thereafter Alfred was obliged 
to fight the Danes in order to save his kingdom. He met them 
in battle nine times in one year. Usually he won, for he was a 
great commander. But sometimes he was obliged to buy off 
his enemy, and for this purpose the people paid a regular tax 
called Danegeld. At length a treaty was made with the Danes 
by which they were to remain in the northern part of England 
and Alfred was to be left unmolested in Wessex and Kent. This 
treaty was unbroken for many years. 

231. Alfred in Peace. — Alfred the Great was a master in war, 
but he was still greater in peace. Amid all the distractions of 
war and of governing a half-civilized people, and though racked 
with disease and pain, this noble ruler found time to foster 
education, religion, and literature, and to be a student and an 
author. He complained that few persons in his kingdom could 
read Latin. He studied the language himself when nearly forty 
years old, and for the benefit of his people he translated several 
important books from Latin into Anglo-Saxon. He founded 
schools and built churches ; he rebuilt London, which had been 
destroyed in the wars; he devised new plans for houses and 
ships ; he taught craftsmen how to excel in their craft. He 
carried a psalm book wherever he went, and he knelt humbly 
among his people in the churches. 

A noted historian ^ pronounces Alfred the Great the noblest 
character in history. He says : " No other man on record has 
ever so thoroughly united all the virtues both of ruler and of 
private man. ... A saint without superstition, a scholar with- 
out ostentation, a warrior all of whose wars were fought in de- 

1 Freeman. 
EL. M. T. — 18 



266 



The Nations of the Middle Ages 



fense of his own country, — there is no other name in history to 
compare with his." 

For a hundred and fifty years after Ahred's reign there is httle 
to interest us in Enghsh history. There were further wars with the 
Danes and for a time England was ruled by a great Danish king, 
Canute (ka-nuf). But most of the people in England were Anglo- 
Saxons, and not long 
after Canute's death 
the throne was given 
to a descendant of King 
Alfred, named Edward 
the Confessor. 




oS 76 l(io 



NORTH 



I IRISH SEA r^ / , rvork 



SEA 



II. The Norman Con- 
quest, 1066 

232. William of 
Normandy. — In the 
year 1034 Robert, duke 
of Nor'mandy, started 
on a pilgrimage to the 
Holy Land. Before 
departing he called 
together his nobles 
and, presenting his 
little son William, a 
lad of seven years, said, 
"This boy will be your 

master in case I never return." And Robert never returned. 

He died the next year in Asia Minor. 

The Normans were the descendants of Northmen who had 

forced the king of France to give them land in northern France, 

on which they settled, and which came to be called Normandy. 

They had adopted the French language and French ways of life. 

William, the new duke of Normandy, was the son of a peasant 

woman named Her'leva. He grew to be a powerful ruler, the 




•" In B. ^ 



England after the Norman Conquest 



The Norman Conquest of England 267 

ablest warrior and statesman of his time, the strongest of a strong 
race. 

William was very ambitious. His soul burned with a longing 
to extend his power beyond the narrow bounds of little Nor- 
mandy, and he cast his eyes across the Channel to the fair land of 
England with its flourishing fields and its industrious peasantry. 
The king of England, Edward the Confessor, was William's dis- 
tant relative, and was childless. 

• But there was a young man in England, named Harold, the 
son of a great Saxon nobleman, who was also looking forward to 
the prize of the English crown. He was not the heir to the crown, 
but neither was William, and he as well as William was related 
to the king. Harold seemed to have the advantage, for he lived 
among the English and was one of them. He was affable and 
brave, generous and popular, and when the aged Edward died, 
early in 1066, Harold was promptly made king of England. 

233. The Battle of Hastings (1066). — Harold knew of Wil- 
liam's designs on the English throne, but soon after the old king's 
death he had to lead an army in the far north to defeat another 
rival. He succeeded in this task, but while he was celebrating 
his victory at a feast the startling news reached him that Wil- 
liam of Normandy had actually landed with a great army on the 
southern coast near Hastings (has'tingz). King Harold hastened 
southward to meet the foe, gathering a large army as he went. 

William, on hearing of the death of King Edward, had mustered 
60,000 men and conveyed them across the Channel in nearly a 
thousand ships. The two armies met at Senlac Hill near the 
town of Hastings, October 14, 1066. For six hours the battle 
raged, until an arrow struck Harold in the eye and penetrated 
his brain. With his death the English army was thoroughly 
disheartened and its defeat soon followed. Thus ended one of 
the decisive battles of history. 

234. Results of the Norman Conquest. — On Christmas Day 
of the same year that witnessed the bloody victory at Hastings, 
William was crowned king of England at London. But his 




The Fleet Sails for England 



mimm/^^^^ 


i 




^^^^^^^fi^^ 



The Battle Begins 




The Action Continues Furiously 

The Battle of Hastings — from the Bayeux Tapestry 

268 



The Norman Conquest of England 269 

troubles were not over. He was five years putting down various 
insurrections throughout the country. He then found himself 
absolute master of the kingdom. 

William the Conquerer, as he was called, proved himself a great 
ruler, but he robbed the English of the liberties they had en- 
joyed in Anglo-Saxon days. He put Normans in all the im- 
portant offices, and reduced the English almost to a condition 
of servitude. It required hundreds of years for the two races to 
blend into one people. 

When we read of the famous battle of Hastings,^ our sym- 
pathies are almost sure to be with King Harold and his people ; 
but viewed in the light of history, the Norman Conquest must be 
regarded as one of the chief factors in making England a great 
nation and the English a great people. The barons of England 
had been growing more and more insolent ; they needed a strong 
ruler and they found one in William. England soon obtained a 
standing among the nations that it never had before. 

Moreover, the spray of Norman blood infused into Anglo- 
Saxon veins, and the blending of the Norman-French with the 
Anglo-Saxon language, produced a stronger race and a richer 
language than otherwise would have been. The French historian 
Guizot (ge-z6') is probably right in saying that the Anglo-Saxon 
system if left to itself would have fallen into confusion, and that 
the true foundations of English liberty are inseparable from the 
Norman Conquest. 

1 The famous Bayeux (ba-yu') tapestry consists of a strip of linen cloth, now 
brown with age, 230 feet long and 20 inches wide, embroidered, in colored woolen 
thread, with scenes of the conquest of England by William. About one twentieth 
of it is shown in the pictures on the opposite page. In the whole tapestry are the 
figures of 625 men, 200 horses, and 40 ships. Most of the scenes are explained by 
Latin inscriptions which are also stitched in wool. The main subjects occupy the 
center of the tapestry, and above and below run ornamental borders. The En- 
glish are depicted with moustaches, the Normans without. 

Popular opinion ascribes the tapestry to Matilda, wife of the Conqueror, and 
tradition has it that it was her death alone that brought the work to an end without 
including the final scene, William's coronation. The tapestry was imdoubtedly 
made in William's reign. 



270 The Nations of the Middle Ages 

III. The Plantagenet Kings and the Great Charter 

235. Henry II (1154-1189) and his Sons. — WiUiam the Con- 
queror, after a reign of twenty-one years, was killed by the 
stumbling of his horse, and after him there was no strong ruler 
before the time of Henry II. Henry II was a descendant of 
Alfred the Great, as well as of William the Conquerer. 

The Plantagenet (plan-taj'e-net) kings of England, so called 
because they wore the planta genesta (broom plant) as their 
badge, were a long dynasty beginning with Henry II, the son of 
William's granddaughter. Only a few kings of this dynasty can 
be noticed here. 

Henry II had extensive lands in France, part of which he 
inherited from the Norman kings and from his father, and part 
of which came through his marriage with a French princess. 
His four sons — -Henry, Richard, Geoffrey (jef'ri), and John — 
conspired with the French king and fought against their father 
over the French lands. At times they were reconciled, and again 
war would break out. -Two of them, Henry and Geoffrey, died 
before their father. 

Henry II was one of the great rulers of medieval England. 
He reformed and greatly improved the law courts ; he sent judges 
about the country to hold court once a year ; he fostered the 
jury system ; he subdued the turbulent nobles and restored the 
country to order. The king was a man of untiring energy. He 
seldom sat down and he kept his servants going until they were 
tired out. Though railroads were then unknown, it was said 
that he traveled about over his dominions so much that no of- 
ficial in any town could be sure the king would not see him at 
some time during the day. He was the first English king to 
extend his power over Ireland. Henry died broken-hearted 
because of the rebellion of his sons, but the English people re- 
membered him as one of the greatest of their sovereigns. 

236. Richard and John. — Richard Coeur de Lion (kur de Ic-on' ; 
that is, the Lion-hearted) succeeded his father on the English 



England under the Plantagenets 271 

throne in 1189 and reigned ten years. We have noticed how he 
overtaxed his people to raise money for the third crusade (sec. 
226). Richard was a chivahic knight and dauntless warrior, 
but not a good king. He cared little for England and spent 
but Httle time in that country; his heart was rather with his 
extensive possessions in France. Richard was slain while be- 
sieging a castle in France, and his weak and cowardly brother 
John ascended the English throne. 

In all the long line of English kings, John is held in least regard. 
There was no redeeming feature in his character. He was low 
and brutal in his instincts. He reigned seventeen years (1199- 
12 16), and they were years of continuous tempest and turmoil. 

The crime of murder was laid at the door of King John. The 
true heir to the throne was Prince Arthur, son of the king's dead 
brother Geoffrey. John had the boy cast into prison and sent 
men to put out his eyes. Moved by the piteous pleading of the 
lad, they refused to obey. But soon afterward Arthur was killed, 
and it was believed that John had slain his little nephew with his 
own hands. 

With Pope Innocent III, one of the greatest of all the popes, 
John had a bitter quarrel. It arose through a disagreement 
as to who should be appointed archbishop of Can'terbury. In 
order to punish the king, Innocent placed the country under an 
interdict ; that is, he ordered the clergy to close all churches and 
suspend church services. For several years the church bells 
held their tongues in silence over all the land of England. The 
king was still obdurate, though the people were against him. 
The pope at last brought John to his knees by threatening to 
take the crown from him and bestow it on the king of France. 
John was completely humiliated. He handed his kingdom over 
to the pope and received it back as a fief, thus becoming the pope's 
vassal and agreeing to pay him a yearly tribute. Henceforth the 
pope was his stanch friend, but John's troubles continued. 

Among his other misfortunes was the loss of nearly all his 
great possessions in France, including lands that had been held 



272 The Nations of the Middle Ages 

by the English kings since the Norman Conquest. At the battle 
of Bouvines (boo-ven') in northern France in 12 14 Philip 
Augustus of France won a victory of great importance, driving 
the English almost entirely from the continent. 



%><.go"ifSoitt^. 





Battle of Bouvines 

From a manuscript at Cambridge University. The drawing represents the turn- 
ing point in the battle. In a charge led by one of King John's captains, King Philip 
Augustus of France was unhorsed and nearly slain. A soldier saved him at the 
cost of his own life. 

237. The Great Charter (12 15). — The chief event in the reign 
of King John, and one of the landmarks in history, was the draw- 
ing up of the Great Charter, — Magna Charta (kar'ta), — the 
document guaranteeing" English liberty. John was eager to send 
an army to France to win back his lost provinces, but so ruth- 
lessly had he trampled the rights of the barons in the dust that 
many of them refused to obey him. Led by Stephen Langdon, 
archbishop of Canterbury, and one of the bravest and best men of 
his time, the barons met and took a solemn oath that they would 
withdraw their allegiance to the king unless he agreed to guar- 
antee their rights. 

They drew up a charter defining the limits of the rights of the 
king. John at first refused to sign it, and the barons raised an 
army. At Run'nymede on the Thames (temz) near London the 
unhappy monarch was surrounded and forced to yield. He 
signed the charter, took an oath to observe it, and affixed the 
seal of England (June 15, 12 15). The barons appointed twenty- 
five of their number to see that the charter was observed by the 
king and to declare war on him in case it was not. 



England under the Plantagenets 273 

King John was wild with rage at what he had done. It is said 
that he " flung himself on the floor and gnawed sticks and straws 
in his fury." He had no thought of keeping his promise. He 
appealed to the pope for help, and the pope freed him from 
his oath, annulled the charter, and suspended Archbishop Lang- 
don. And the English people who a few years before had de- 
cided against the king in favor of the pope, now decided against 
the king even though the pope was with him. 

Civil war was imminent ; both sides raised armies, and the 
barons were aided by an army from France. But suddenly, the 
next year, the war came to an end through the death of King John. 

The Great Charter, wrung from King John at Runnymede, 
is the most famous document of its kind in the world. It was a 
new guarantee of rights which had formerly been enjoyed by the 
people, but which had been disregarded by King John. 

It declared that " no freeman may be taken, or imprisoned, 
or disseized, or outlawed, or banished, or in any way destroyed 
. . . except by the lawful judgment of his peers, or by the law 
of the land." It declared that justice should not in the future 
be sold to any one. Before this an innocent man might be im- 
prisoned for years unless he was willing to pay a large sum to 
secure a trial, or his release ; or a man might spend his life in prison 
without knowing why he was imprisoned. 

The Great Charter secured the rights of the church, the barons, 
the towns, and, to a less extent, the people. It has stood all 
tests from that day to this. Various later kings attempted to 
rule with a despotic hand, but the people would at length revert 
to the Great Charter. No ruler has been wholly able to disre- 
gard it, and even to-day it is a living part of the British con- 
stitution. 

IV. The Rise of the Jury System and of Parliament 

238. The Ordeal and Other Forms of Trial. — There were 
several forms of " trial by ordeal " practiced by the crude society 
of the Middle Ages. The most common was the trial by fire or 



274 The Nations of the Middle Ages 

by water. An accused person was put to some severe test, the 
theory being that if he was innocent God would protect him from 
injury. Thus the accused was required to thrust his arm into 
boiUng water, to carry a red-hot bar of iron nine yards, or to 
run barefoot and blindfold over a path strewn with red-hot 
plowshares.^ These ordeals were often conducted in the churches 
under the supervision of the priests. But in 12 15 the church 
condemned the ordeal. 

The wager by battle was often employed to determine guilt 
or innocence. An accused man was required to fight another 
man and if defeated he was adjudged guilty. Supposed witches 
were often tried by being thrown into deep water, bound hand 
and foot. If they floated, they were pronounced witches and 
were taken out and put to death. If they sank, they were con- 
sidered innocent, but they were not always rescued from drown- 
ing. 

Another form of trial, used more on the Continent than in 
England, was called compurgation. An accused man would 
take a solemn oath that he was innocent and would have a num- 
ber of his friends take an oath that they believed him. This 
proceeding often cleared him, as it was believed God would punish 
him and his friends if they swore falsely. 

239. The Jury. — The origin of the jury is lost in obscurity. 
It developed slowly during the period of the early Norman kings. 
Henry II (sec. 235) did more perhaps to establish the jury than 
any other man. The jury system, which supplanted the old 
ordeal, is merely a plan of deciding a case at law by the verdict 
of a number of picked men, and the number came to be twelve. 

At first the men chosen to serve as the jury were persons who 
knew about the case and they were therefore witnesses as well as 
judges; but it was not always easy to find so many who were 
familiar with the facts, and this led to introducing the testimony 

1 Even a queen (Queen Emma, mother of Edward the Confessor), being accused 
by her enemies of wrongdoing, was required to walk barefoot over nine red-hot 
plowshares, and the chronicles tell us that she did so without injury. 








4= 43 



Js "3 2 



r 1 « ^ 



4*r«K=;:.. -»._:• 






.-ru 



oJ >-* 



275- 



276 The Nations of the Middle Ages 

of other persons as witnesses. The jurors then rendered a verdict 
partly on their own knowledge and partly from the testimony of 
witnesses. So well did this plan work that, in the course of time, 
the final form of the jury came about. The jurymen were re- 
quired to render their verdict wholly from the evidence presented 
at the trial. 

In this final form the American people adopted the jury sys- 
tem from England. The continental countries of Europe also 
employ the jury system, somewhat modified ; but they did not 
adopt it until after it had been in use for many centuries in 
England. 

240. Beginnings of Parliament. — A parliament (par'li-ment) 
is a lawmaking body of men, elected, in part at least, by the 
people. It is known by different names in different countries. 
In this country we call it Congress or Legislature. 

The first Parliament in which the masses of the people were 
represented came into existence in the reign of Henry III, son of 
King John. Henry enjoyed a very long reign (12 16-1272). 
He was only a slight improvement over his father. He quar- 
reled with his people, and the barons rose against him as they 
had risen against his father. The barons were led by Simon de 
Mont'fort, a man whose name should ever be remembered in 
English history. 

After a battle with the king, De Montfort found himself master 
of the kingdom. He did not misuse his power. He called a 
Parliament (1265) in which the common people were repre- 
sented. In earlier bodies of this kind only the nobles and church- 
men took part. De Montfort invited the counties and towns 
to send each two citizens, and many of them did so. 

Thirty years later (1295), under Edward I, the Model Parlia- 
ment was called. The king then adopted the parliamentary 
system as a permanent factor in the government, and so it has 
remained. Nearly all modern governments have modeled their 
legislative bodies on the English Parliament. 

At first the lords and common people met in one body, but 



England in the Middle Ages 277 

they did not get on well together, and in the following century 
(1341) they separated into two houses, — the House of Lords 
and the House of Commons. As the centuries passed, the House 
of Commons gained gradually in power and importance and at 
length it became, as it is now, the great governing body of the 
nation. 

Side Talks 

Harold and William. — " On an evil day in 1065 Harold, the son of 
Godwin, became stranded on the coast of Normandy. He fell into the 
hands of Duke William. Here he remained for many days. William 
treated him with royal generosity. The two men hunted and feasted 
together and W^illiam asked the hand of Harold's sister in marriage. 
He was only getting ready to introduce another subject — the succession 
to the English throne. 

" At length William informed his guest that long ago King Edward 
(who had spent years in Normandy as a boy) had promised that if 
ever he became king of England, he, William, should be his successor, 
and he now asked if Harold would support him. 

" Harold was William's prisoner and he knew it. Feasted and feted 
though he was, he was not at liberty to depart. He assented, and 
promised to aid William to England's throne. But that was not all. 
He was asked to swear, and again he assented. Beside a chest covered 
with a cloth of gold he was required to kneel and take the oath. He 
did so, and then the crafty host uncovered the chest and displayed a 
collection of relics, the bones and ashes of saints, and upon these 
Harold had unconsciously taken his oath. . . . Harold turned pale 
when he saw what he had done. He departed for England. 

" The following year, 1066, on the fifth of January, King Edward died. 
The people of England turned instinctively to Harold. He was brave 
and dauntless in war ; he was kind and gracious in peace ; he was 
greatly loved by the people. But there was his oath to support William 
to the throne. Can he violate such an oath? Here were the people 
crying for him to be their king ; they needed him, and no other hand in 
England was so steady as his. Seldom has a conscientious man so 
great a question to decide. At length he decided that, as his oath 
was a forced one, he would disregard it, and when, two days after the 
aged king had passed away, the witan [council of nobles] chose him to 
fill the exalted station, he accepted and became king of England." 
— Elson, Guide to English History, pp. 47-49. 



278 The Nations of the Middle Ages 

A King in Captivity. — When Richard the Lion-hearted was in Palestine 
on the third crusade, word reached him that his brother John, whom he 
had intrusted with large powers, had betrayed his trust and had usurped 
the English crown. Richard hastened to return. With a few friends 
he landed on the northern coast of the Adriatic Sea and set out to cross 
Europe on foot. He tried to conceal from the people the fact that he 
was king of England; but one day when roasting some meat on a spit 
he thoughtlessly left a costly ring on his fmger. This awakened sus- 
picion that he was no ordinary person and led to his capture near 
Vienna. Soon he was sold to his bitterest enemy, the emperor of Ger- 
many. For two years the royal prisoner was held captive, and in the 
meantime John seized the kingdom of England, declaring that his 
brother was dead. 

The English people at length heard that Richard was alive, and so 
heartily did they hate John that they raised a large sum of money, which 
they paid for the ransom of their captive king. John was terrified at 
the return of his brother, but the people rejoiced greatly. John fled 
across the Channel, but later returned and was pardoned by Richard 
through the entreaties of their mother, Eleanor. 

Now a second time Richard had himself crowned king of England. 
Had he been content to remain with his people he might yet have left 
a great name in history, for he was a man of great ability. But he 
could not endure a quiet and peaceful life. Nothing but war could 
satisfy the soul of the lion-hearted Richard. After a few months, he 
crossed the Channel to his possessions in Normandy, never again to step 
foot on the soil of England. He began a war with the king of France, 
and for six years the people of England were heavily taxed to carry 
it on. 

One day Richard met a religious hermit who told him that he had 
grievously offended God and that unless he mended his ways he would 
soon come to a miserable end. The hermit's prophecy came true. 
Richard was besieging a castle when a boy shot an arrow from the wall 
into his shoulder. In being extracted the iron barb tore the flesh. 
The wound would not heal, and after twelve days of agony the king saw 
that he must die. He had the boy that shot the arrow brought into his 
presence and asked, " What have I done to thee that thou hast killed 
me? " 

" You slew my father and my two brothers with your own hand and 
you intended to kill me. Take any revenge on me you like," an- 
swered the lad. 

Richard forgave the youth and ordered his release, but after Richard 
was dead his soldiers tortured the boy to death. 



England in the Middle Ages 279 

Questions and Topics. — I. Why is the history of England important 
to Americans? Explain why our country uses the English language. 
What Teutonic tribes settled in England? Who were the Danes? 
Write a brief account of Alfred in peace. 

II. Where is Normandy and what people lived there? Which in 
your opinion had the better right to the English throne, William or 
Harold? Why was the battle of Hastings important in the world's 
history? What effect had it on the language we speak? 

III. From what two famous rulers was Henry II a descendant? 
Describe the character of Henry II ; of Richard Coeur de Lion. Why is 
King John regarded as the worst of the English kings ? Name a few of 
the main points of the Great Charter. In what way is it considered a 
part of the British constitution? What is a constitution? What is 
meant by " judgment of peers "? 

IV. What was the ordeal? compurgation? ' Compare such trials 
with the trials of the Athenians (sec. 70). What are the advantages 
of the jury system? Can you name any defects in it? What is a 
parliament? When and by whom was the first English Parliament 
organized in which the common people were represented? When was 
the English Parliament separated into two houses, and why? Which 
house now has the greater power? 

Events and Dates. — Reign of Alfred the Great, 871-901. The 
Norman Conquest, 1066. Reign of Henry II, 11 54-1 189. Death of 
Richard Coeur de Lion, 1199. Magna Charta, 1215. Rise of the 
Jury System. First Parliament containing representatives of the people, 
1265. The Model Parliament, 1295. 

For Further Reading. — Any good short history of England, such as 
those of Green, Ransome, Gardiner, Andrews, Cheyney, Walker, that 
may be found in the school library, which give a fuller narrative of this 
period. See also, Asser, Life of Alfred. Plummer, Life and Times of 
Alfred the Great. For source material see Ogg, Source Book in Medieval 
History. Robinson, Readings in European History, Vol. I, ch. XI. 



CHAPTER XXI 

BUILDING OF THE NATIONS 

I. Decline of Feudalism ; Growth of Cities 

241. Feudalism and Gunpowder. — Feudalism, as noted in 
an earlier chapter, held sway in Europe for several hundred 
years ; but after the thirteenth century it gradually lost its power. 
The decay was due partly to the crusades (sec. 228), partly 
to the growth of cities, and partly to the use of firearms. 

Late in the Middle Ages the use of gunpowder became general 
in Europe, and it played an important part in unhorsing the 
feudal baron and in solidifying the kingdom. It was the custom 
of the feudal lord to keep his vassals in subjection by means of a 
small army of knights, mounted, armed, and thoroughly trained. 
A few such men could overcome a host of untrained peasants. 
But no coat of mail could protect its wearer from the leaden 
bullet, just as no castle walls could withstand the fire of artillery. 
When therefore the musket came into general use, the vocation 
of the armored knight was at an end, for the common man with 
little training was his equal. 

The feudal baron could not afford to keep large armies and 
many cannon ; the king alone could do this, and to the king the 
baron was obliged to yield his power. Thus gunpowder played 
an important role in breaking up feudal government and in trans- 
ferring the governing power to the king. 

242. The Growth of Cities. — The great cities of the Roman 
Empire had fallen into decay, and many of them had disappeared 
entirely. The Middle Ages were chiefly an agricultural period. 
But through the crusades and other causes the people came to 
desire luxuries and conveniences in addition to the bare neces- 

280 




Following 2tiO 



The Growth of Cities 



2»I 



sities of life. These could come only with the growth of towns 
and cities, which are necessary to manufacturing and commerce. 
No better or more virile people can be found in the world than 
those who live on farms ; but they are too scattered to act in 
unison, and we must look to the 
cities to take the lead in all lines 
of progress. Only in towns and 
cities do we find large libraries, 
and art galleries, and great uni- 
versities. One cause of the lack 
of progress in the Middle Ages 
was the want of cities. 

Gradually towns began to 
grow up, usually around a castle 
or a monastery. They brought 
great changes in the life of the 
people and had a profound effect 
on the feudal system. In the 
cities there came to be a rich 
merchant class who refused 
longer to be ground down by 
the exactions of a feudal master. 
The cities therefore sought re- 
lease from their feudal burdens, 
and many of them obtained 
it. Some of them revolted and 
forced their lord to yield ; a 
larger number obtained char- 
ters of liberty, sometimes com- 
plete independence, by pur- 
chase. A charter was a written contract showing just how much 
power, if any, remained to the feudal master. 

Italy took the lead in this medieval city building, and we find 
in that country the famous cities of Florence, Ven'ice, Genoa 
(jen'6-a), and Mil'an. 
EL. M. T. — 19 




A FiPTEENTH Century Cannon 

From an illuminated manuscript of 

Froissart's Chronicles. 




Goldsmith 



Dyer 




Barber Armorer 

Guild Craftsmen 
From wood engravings made in the sixteenth century. 



Beginnings of the French Nation 283 

In France a city receiving a certain charter of rights was cahed 
a commune. In Germany and England, as well as in France, 
many of the finest cities of to-day had their origin in the Middle 
Ages. The growth of cities greatly fostered the handicrafts or 
trades. A young man learning a trade had to serve as an " ap- 
prentice " for several years, often living in the home of his master, 
before he could become a master workman. The craftsmen 
represented many employments, — the dyers, the weavers, the 
goldsmiths, the millers, the masons, and others. There was little 
machinery ; everything was made by hand. The master work- 
men formed themselves into associations called guilds, for the 
purpose of regulating the trade in their own interest. These 
guilds bore only a slight resemblance to the modern labor union ; 
for the master workman was usually in business for himself, and 
not merely an employee. 

II. Beginnings of the French Nation 

243. Early Kings. — The French people of to-day are de- 
scendants of three ancient peoples — the Gauls of Caesar's day, 
he Romans who settled among them, and the Franks and other 
tribes who came later from Germany. 

We have noted the brilliant victory of Charles M artel over 
the Saracens at Tours in 732 (sec. 204), the founding of a great 
empire by his grandson, Charlemagne, with France as its seat, 
and also the division of the empire in 843 by the treaty of Ver- 
dun (ch. XVII). 

The history of France as a separate nation may be said to have 
begun with the treaty of Verdun, when Charles the Bald, grand- 
son of Charlemagne, became king. The descendants of Charle- 
magne, like the descendants of Clovis (sec. 205), were weak rulers, 
and in 987 one of the great dukes of France, named Hugh Capet 
(ka'pet or ka-pe'), gained the throne. He was the first of the 
Capetian (ka-pe'shan) dynasty, which reigned for eight hundred 
years. 



284 ,The Nations of the Middle Ages 

During the two centuries following the accession of Hugh 
Capet there is little that is striking in the history of France. 
The country was under the feudal rule of many counts and dukes, 
among whom was William the Conqueror (sec. 232). The next 
important reign was that of Philip Augustus (i 180-1223), whom 
we have already met, with Richard Coeur de Lion of England, on 
the third crusade (sec. 226). 

During his long reign Philip did much toward building up a 
strong monarchy in France. He greatly weakened the feudal 
lords and strengthened the royal power; he robbed the king of 
England of his vast possessions in France ; he embellished and 
fortified Paris, paved the streets, improved the schools, and did 
many other things for the upbuilding of his country. The great 
blot on his character was his approval of the murderous crusade 
against the Walden'sians and the Albigenses (al-bi-jen'sez).i 

244. Saint Louis (1226-1270). — Louis IX, known in history 
as Saint Louis, was the noblest and most admirable of all the 
French kings. A boy of nine years when he came to the throne, 
Louis and his kingdom were under the care of his mother dur- 
ing the following ten years. Soon after becoming of age he 
began to show those great qualities of soul for which the world 
remembers him. 

Saint Louis reformed the courts and abolished trials by private 
duels. He humbled the great feudal barons and, though a faith- 
ful churchman, he refused to allow the clergy to control his king- 
dom. He liberated large numbers of wretched serfs. 

Not only was Louis IX a man of perfect private morals, a 
soul overflowing with Christian charity, he was also a great ruler, 
brave and fearless in battle, though he never waged war un- 
justly. In 1270 he embarked on the last crusade and died of 
pestilence in North Africa. Of all the medieval kings. Saint 

1 The Waldensians were followers of Peter Waldo of Lyons, an eloquent preacher, 
who urged a simple form of worship. The Albigenses, so named from the town of 
Albi, were opposed to the existing forms of church and state. Both sects refused to 
acknowledge the pope as the true head of the church. 



The Hundred Years' War 285 

Louis alone is favorably compared with Alfred the Great of Eng- 
land and with Charlemagne. 

Medieval France reached the acme of power under Philip 
IV, the Fair (1285-1314), the grandson of Saint Louis. Philip 
was one of the ablest of the French kings. He is remembered 
for his many reforms, his efficient government, and his long and 
successful contest with the papacy. He won a complete victory 
over Pope Boniface VHL who had issued a bull declaring that 
no secular ruler should require the clergy to pay taxes. 

in. The Hundred Years' War 

245. Crecy and Poitiers. — The longest war of the Middle 
Ages was between France and England. It began in 1337, con- 
tinued for more than a century, with intervals of peace, and is 
known as the Hundred Years' War. King John of England had 
lost nearly all the English possessions in France (sec. 236) ; but 
when the direct line of French kings died out, Edward III (1327- 
1377)) oi^e of the English monarchs, laid claim to the French 
crown because his mother was a French princess. The long 
war that followed was more disastrous to the French than to the 
English, for the fighting was all on French soil, but the French 
won in the end. 

The war began in earnest when Edward crossed over to France 
with 30,000 men. The king of France, with a much larger army, 
met him at Crecy (kra-se'), and here was fought one of the famous 
battles of the Middle Ages (1346). The English won a most 
signal victory. When the battle was over, 30,000 Frenchmen, 
including twelve hundred knights and eleven princes of the blood, 
lay dead on the gory field. 

This battle is remembered as the first in which gunpowder 
was a factor. Says a writer of the time, the English used " bom- 
bards, which, with fire, sent little balls of iron to frighten and 
destroy the horses." Perhaps no one then dreamed that in the 
coming centuries firearms were to become almost the sole agent 
of destruction in battle. 



286 The Nations of the Middle Ages 

In the battle of Crecy the famous Black Prince, the fourteen- 
year-old son of the king of England, displayed wonderful courage 
and ability. At the close of the battle the king clasped the boy 
in his arms and exclaimed, " Right royally you have behaved 
to-day and proved yourself worthy of a crown." But the Black 
Prince died before his father and never wore a crown. 

Ten years later, in 1356, was fought the battle of Poitiers 
(pwa-tya'), with the same result, a great victory for the Eng- 
lish. In this battle the king of France was captured by the 
Black Prince. 

246. The Black Death. — Between these two battles a scourge 
more dreadful than war swept over the warring countries. It 
was a pestilence called the Black Death. It came out of Asia 
and reached France and England in 1 348-1 349. An affection 
of the lungs and throat, a quickened pulse, a strange luster in the 
eye, and death, swift and relentless, came within two or three days. 

Business and war came to a standstill. Silence reigned in Lon- 
don and Paris, broken by the wails of the dying and the rumbling 
of the dead cart with its ghastly load. It was said that half 
the people of England perished through this frightful scourge, 
and that in some parts of France the proportion was still greater. 

Many estates were left tenantless, and the result was that 
free laborers were in greater demand, so that wages rose. The 
English parliament passed laws prohibiting laborers from ask- 
ing higher wages than before the pestilence. This law was only 
partly enforced and it led to a rising of the peasants in 1381 in 
what was known as the Wat Tyler insurrection. This was put 
down with a strong hand, as was a similar uprising in France; 
but in both France and England the condition of the peasants 
became permanently better. 

247. Joan of Arc. — One searches in vain through the pages 
of history to find a more entrancing and astonishing tale than 
the story of the young French peasant girl who became the com- 
mander of armies, the winner of battles, the deliverer of a nation. 

For long periods after the death of Edward III in 1377 the 



The Hundred Years' War 287 

war was suspended, but it broke out again early in the next cen- 
tury. Henry V, king of England in 14 15, won at the battle of 
Agincourt (a-zhaN-koor') another great victory over the French, 
similar to the. victories at Crecy and Poitiers. A few years later 
the English had control of almost all France north of the Loire 
(Iwar), and they were besieging Or'leans. 

There was a young peasant maid, tending her father's flocks 
among the hills of eastern France, — Joan (jon) of Arc. She 
was a good, simple-minded girl, and she had a deeply religious 
nature. For several years she brooded over the unhappy con- 
dition of her country. She believed that she heard voices calling 
on her to lead the French to victory. Again and again she heard 
the calling and at last she resolved to obey. Her long hair was 
shorn, she put on men's clothes, and after a long, dangerous jour- 
ney she was brought into the presence of the king, the youthful 
Charles VH, who had not yet been crowned (1429). She was 
scarcely twenty years of age. 

The people had come to believe in her, but the king hesitated. 
" Gentle Dauphin, ^ why do you not believe in me?" she said 
at their first meeting. She promised him that if he would give 
her men she would raise the siege of Orleans and lead him to 
Rheims (remz or raNs) to be crowned. He complied and she 
rode at the head of the army. The rough, hardened soldiers 
were wild with enthusiasm. They believed that a saint, a heav- 
enly messenger, had been sent to lead them. At her command 
they renounced their sins and took communion. They then 
marched upon Orleans. Joan led the fight. With her own 
hands she placed a ladder against a wall, and mounting it received 
a serious wound. 

The English were soon in flight. The city was saved, many 
other towns were recovered from the English, and before the 
end of that same year King Charles was crowned at Rheims.^ 

1 Dauphin (do'fin) was the title of the heir of the French crown. 
^ The Cathedral of Rheims was built in the thirteenth century on the site of the 
church where Clovis was baptized in 496 (sec. 194). Within its walls the kings 



288 The Nations of the Middle Ages 

Joan of Arc, now called the Maid of Orleans, had accomplished 
the marvelous task she had set out to do. She now begged the 
king to let her go back to her father's home among the hills 
where she might again become a shepherd lass. But the king 
refused to let her go ; he believed she would win more victories, 
for all France was aglow with enthusiasm over this wonderful 
girl. 

Again and again was Joan engaged with the army, and at last 
she fell into the hands of the English. The English beUeved 
that she was a sorceress, a witch, an agent of the devil. They 
condemned her to death and burned her at the stake. In the 
presence of death her lofty spirit was undaunted ; she died like a 
heroine and a saint (1431). An English officer who had come to 
jeer exclaimed, " We are lost ; we have burned a saint !" ^ 

The spirit aroused in France by this heroic young life did not 
die. The feeling of patriotism, scarcely known in Europe during 
the Middle Ages, had been kindled. The war dragged on for 
many years longer, but the English lost steadily. The Hun- 
dred Years' War came to an end in the year of the fall of Con- 

of France were crowned, and here Joan of Arc witnessed the most famous corona- 
tion of all, that of Charles VII, in i42g. 

This cathedral was a splendid example of early French Gothic architecture. The 
three portals shown in the picture opposite, deeply recessed, were surmounted by the 
pointed arches which are typical of the style. The sides and overhead vaulting of the 
arches were adorned with statues and carvings representing Biblical scenes. Over 
the entire outside of the building were scattered or grouped together thousands of 
carved stone figures. Beginning with the creation of the world and continuing 
through the New Testament the story of the redemption of mankind was told. In 
the Middle Ages, when books were few, such sculpture was a valuable means of 
education. 

The round "Rose Window" over the central doorway, nearly 40 feet in diameter, 
was filled, like the windows of Gothic churches generally, with beautiful painted 
glass. Still higher, extending across the front below the towers, was a row of 42 
colossal statues representing the French kings, and called the Gallery of Kings. 
The whole was crowned by square towers rising 267 feet from the ground. The 
cathedral was wrecked by the bombardment of German guns in the World War. 

• In i8go a beautiful monument was erected to Joan of Arc at the village of 
Domremy fdoN-re-me'), her birthplace. In 1920 she was formally declared a saint 
by the authorities of the Roman Catholic Church. 




Cathedral of Rheims in 1914 




\\ OF Arc's Entry into Orleans 



Joan rode at the head of the French army in a full coat of mail, armed with the 

ancient sword said to have been the one with which Charles Martel had vanquished 

the Saracens (sec. 204). She carried a white banner of her own design, embroidered 

with the lilies of France. 



Germany in the Middle Ages 289 

stantinople (1453), twenty-four years after Joan's wonderful vic- 
tory at Orleans. The English were driven out of France, retaining 
only the city of Calais (kal'a or ka-le'), which Edward III had 
conquered a hundred years before. 



IV. Germany in the Middle Ages 

248. Beginnings of Germany. — The Germany which we now 
know as a compact nation did not exist as such in the Middle 
Ages. At the treaty of Verdun, when Charles the Bald was 
made king of France, another grandson of Charlemagne, Louis 
the German, became king of Germany (sec. 211). In France, the 
king gradually obtained more power, at the expense of feudalism, 
until he became absolute monarch. Not so in Germany. Here 
the king, who was called the emperor, attempted to hold Italy 
within the empire and thus his attention was divided and he did 
not become strong in either country. 

In time he lost control of Italy altogether, but did not thereby 
gain the ruling power in Germany. A few strong men we find 
among the German kings, as Otto the Great and Frederick Bar- 
barossa (sees. 220, 226) ; but they did not succeed in forming a 
permanent union. The great feudal lords, of whom there were 
several hundred, were almost independent, the emperor held an 
empty title, and, as we shall see in later chapters, Germany did 
not have a solid national government until 1871. 

249. The Seven Electors and the Hapsburgs. — When the old 
line of German kings died out, the feudal lords assumed the 
right of electing a sovereign. As time passed this power was 
usurped by seven men, four of whom were rulers of the greater 
German states and three of whom were high prelates of the church. 
They were called Electors. 

For a long period the emperors were chosen by the electors 
from different great German families. The Hapsburgs were a 
noble family of Switzerland, so called from Hapsburg Castle, 
their dwelling place. For centuries the Hapsburgs were the 



290 The Nations of the Middle Ages 

most illustrious family in Europe. The first of the house to be 
chosen emperor was Rudolph, elected in 1273. Soon after this 
Rudolph came into possession of the duchy of Austria, which re- 
mained the chief seat of the family until its downfall in 191 8. 
After the reign of Rudolph's son, the imperial crown was lost by 
the Hapsburgs for a long time, but was recovered in 1437, after 
which it remained in this one family for more than three hun- 
dred years. 

250. Independence of Switzerland. — The country which is 
now Switzerland was a part of the German Empire in the early 
Middle Ages. The house of Hapsburg had large possessions in 
that land and exercised some control over the people. But the 
Swiss, a race of hardy mountaineers, were intense lovers of liberty. 
Three of the cantons, or provinces, about Lake Lucerne (lu-surn') 
formed a confederation and determined to cast off the yoke of the 
Hapsburgs. Other cantons joined them later and several desperate 
battles were won against the Austrians. The most famous of 
these was the battle of Sempach (zem'paK) in 1386. In this 
battle the Austrians were signally defeated and Leopold (le'o- 
pold), head of the Hapsburg house, was killed. From that time 
the Swiss were an independent people. 

There are many legends and stories of this early heroic age of 
Switzerland. The most famous is that of William Tell, which 
is no doubt a myth. But the story of Arnold von Winkelried 
(ving'kel-ret), who sacrificed his life to save the Swiss army, 
is believed to be true. It was at the battle of Sempach. The 
little Swiss army was surrounded and hemmed in by a wall of 
gleaming Austrian spears. Winkelried rushed alone upon the 
enemy, gathering as many spear points as he could reach, bore 
them down and thus opened a path through which his comrades 
rushed to victory. 

251. German Free Cities and the Hanseatic League. — The 
weakness of the German government left the various parts of 
the empire to govern themselves in their own way. The feudal 
lords kept control of their dominions as long as they could, but 



Italy in the Middle Ages 291 

many of the towns refused to continue under feudal government 
and became free and self-governing. 

There were various leagues of cities, one of which, the Han- 
seatic (han-se-at'ik) League, became very famous and continued 
for more than two centuries. It was formed for the protection 
and extension of commerce, and included more than eighty cities. 
It had fleets and armies and it commanded the respect of kings 
and emperors. 

V, Italy 

252. Divisions of Italy. — In the long past days when the 
power of Rome was at its height Italy was the most important 
country in the world. But the greatness of the land was gone. 
The character of the people had greatly changed. Great numbers 
of the old Roman families had died out, and Goths and Lom- 
bards and Normans had taken their places. 

Italy was without any central government. The country 
was divided into a number of states, as the kingdom of Naples, 
the republics of Venice and of Florence, the Papal States, and the 
duchy of Milan. These had no connection with one another, 
they often fought with each other, and sometimes were fought 
over by the kings of France and Spain. 

While England and France and Spain during the Middle Ages 
were slowly uniting into compact kingdoms, Italy, like Germany, 
remained divided until after the middle of the nineteenth cen- 
tury. 

253. Italian Cities. — - The want of a central government in 
Italy, as in Germany, made it easy for the cities to become and 
remain independent and self-governing. The most important 
of these cities, or city-states, were Venice, Florence, Genoa, and 
Milan. 

Venice, built on low islands near the Adriatic coast, grew into 
a great power, and so continued for centuries. She had fleets 
and armies, controlled much territory, and her commerce, like 
that of Phoenicia of the ancient world, extended over all known 



292 The Nations of the Middle Ages 

seas. Her ships brought wool from England and furs from the 
Black Sea. Venetian merchants in caravans traversed the weary 
deserts of Persia and China, returning with spices, silks, and 
precious stones. 

The great rival of Venice was Genoa. The two cities became 
bitter enemies and were at war with each other at intervals for a 




St. Mark's of Venice 

This cathedral is in the Byzantine style. It is adorned with more than 500 marble 
columns, and is decorated inside and out with almost 46,000 square feet of mosaics 
in brilliant colors. Over the principal entrance are four horses in gilded bronze. 
They are supposed once to have adorned the triumphal arch of Nero, and afterwards 
that of Trajan. Constantine sent them to Constantinople, whence the Venetians 
brought them to Venice in 1204, after the fourth crusade (sec. 226). In 1797 they 
were taken to Paris by Napoleon, where they graced for a time the triumphal arch 
of the Carrousel (page 207). In 1815 they were restored to Venice. During the 
World War they were carried to Rome to save them from possible destruction by 
enemy airplanes, but after the war they were replaced on St. Mark's. 



hundred years. Whenever their ships met on the sea they 
fought. In one of these ship-duels the Genoese vessel was com- 
manded by Christopher Columbus, afterward the discoverer of 
America. After the two crews had fought for some time both 



Italy in the Middle Ages 293 

ships took fire. Many men were lost, but Columbus saved his 
life by swimming to shore, six miles away. 

Florence also was an Italian city of much importance. The 
record of Florence in literature and the arts was for a time almost so 
great as to give it rank with Athens of ancient Greece (sec. 80). 
It was in this city that the Medici (med'e-che) family arose ,and 
became one of the most famous ruling families of the Middle Ages. 

The greatness of the city of Rome had long passed away, but 
in the middle of the fourteenth century a determined effort was 
made by Rienzi (ri-en'ze), who took the title of tribune of the 
people, to restore the faded glory of the city on the Tiber. For 
years rival factions of the nobles had fought for supremacy. The 
popes no longer dwelt in the Eternal City. They had fled to 
France and taken up their abode at Avignon (a-ve-nyoN'), where 
they remained most of the time for seventy years (1305-1377). 
This absence of the popes from Rome was known as the Babylo- 
nian Captivity.^ 

When the city was at the height of confusion and disorder, 
Rienzi made eloquent appeals to the people to remember their 
greatness, to awaken from their lethargy and deliver themselves 
from bondage. He was successful. He won the people's ap- 
plause and was made ruler of Rome (1347). He drove the war- 
ring barons from the city, and attempted to unite all Italy under 
a republic. But his triumph was short-lived. Rienzi was killed 
in an uprising, and Rome relapsed into disorder. 

VI. Formation of the Kingdom of Spain 

254. Ferdinand and Isabella. — Most of the Visigoths, after 
capturing Rome in 410, had moved on westward and settled in 
Spain (sec. 190) ; three hundred years later they were conquered 
by the Saracens, Mohammedan invaders, who took possession 
of^;the country (sec. 204). 

1 Another cause of the removal of the popes to France was the triumph of Philip 
the Fair over the papacy (sec. 244). For many years the popes were under the 
influence of the French kings. 




294 



Formation of the Kingdom of Spain 295 

For 800 years the Mohammedans of Spain, who came to be 
called Moors, remained in that country ; but they steadily lost 
ground. Little by little the growing states of Spain pushed the 
Moors farther south until, late in the Middle Ages, they occupied 
only a small section known as the kingdom of Granada (gra-na'da).^ 

Two of the most important of the Christian states in Spain 
were Castile (kas-tel'), the largest of all, occupying the central 
part, and Aragon (ar'a-gon), in the eastern part facing the Medi- 
terranean toward Italy. 

These states had remained independent for centuries, but in 
1469 Ferdinand, who later became king of Aragon, married 
Isabella, heir to the throne of Castile. This marriage brought 
about the union of the two countries, Castile and Aragon, in 1479, 
and thus was formed the kingdom of Spain, destined to include 
the entire peninsula, except Portugal in the western part. 

Isabella was a queen among women as well as queen of Spain. 
Tall and graceful, say the chronicles of the time, excelling in 
wisdom and virtue, she came as near being the perfect type of 
sovereign as any king or queen who ever graced a throne. 

Soon after the union of Castile and Aragon there was order 
and good government such as Spain had never known. Thou- 
sands of highwaymen were severely dealt with, the castles of the 
robber knights were torn down, and for the first time in centuries 
the roads of Spain were safe to the unarmed traveler. 

The one dark shadow on the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella 
was their introduction of the Inquisition, or Holy Office. The 
Inquisition, which had already been introduced into France 
and Italy, was a system of courts for the trial of heresy. Any one 

1 The Alham'bra, shown on the opposite page, was the most remarkable building 
in Granada. It was built at different times, being really a series of palaces, each 
with a separate entrance and an open court of its own surrounded by rooms. The 
Court of the Lions, the most beautiful of all, was begun in 1377. It is surrounded 
by an arcade of Moorish arches decorated with exquisite fretwork. The overflow 
water from the lion fountain in the center passes in runlets from the court to cool 
the surrounding rooms. Washington Irving lived in this palace for a time, while 
gathering material for his book The Alhambra. 



296 The Nations of the Middle Ages 

whose belief did not strictly conform to the teachings of the 
church was subject to being condemned by this court. The 
penalties were banishment, imprisonment, and burning at the 
stake. In Spain the Inquisition at first bore most heavily upon 
the Jews. After two thousand of them had been burned to 
death and many others had suffered milder punishments, the 
Jews were expelled from the country ; more than half a million 
were forced to leave Spain (1492). 

255. Conquest of Granada, — The one spot in all Spain that 
was still under Moslem dominion was the little kingdom of Gra- 
nada on the Mediterranean shore in the far south. The Moors 
were an industrious, frugal people. Their capital city, Granada, 
situated far up the mountain slope, 2000 feet above the sea, en- 
joyed perpetual spring, and was one of the richest and most 
beautiful cities in Europe. Here stood the Alhambra, the palace 
of the last of the Moorish kings, the ruins of which are among 
the most interesting landmarks of the Middle Ages. 

Slowly and irresistibly, for hundreds of years, the Christians 
had driven the Moslems southward, and now, after Ferdinand 
and Isabella had restored order in their own dominions, they 
determined on the conquest of Granada. 

After a war of ten years the kingdom of Granada was over- 
thrown (1492). The cross replaced the crescent, and the banners 
of Castile and Aragon waved from the towers of the Alhambra. 
A few months later, within this same year, Spain sent out Chris- 
topher Columbus to the unknown West on the most famous of 
all sea voyages. 

The Moors were permitted to remain in Spain for a hundred 
years longer, but the promise of the Spanish sovereigns that 
they should not be molested in their religion was broken, and 
many of them were burned at the stake. 

VII. Scandinavians and Slavs 

256. Scandinavia. — The two northern peninsulas extending 
in opposite directions, comprising Denmark, Sweden, and Nor- 



Scandinavians and Slavs 297 

way, are known as Scandinavia. • The Scandinavians are a hardy, 
virile people of Teutonic stock. In the Middle Ages they were 
known as Danes or Northmen. They colonized Iceland and made 
many incursions into Central Europe, France, and England, where 
great numbers of them remained. 

For centuries Sweden, Norway, and Denmark remained apart ; 
but in 1397 at the Union of Calmar the three were united under 
one crown, each retaining its own government. The first to 
wear the triple crown was Queen Margaret of the house of Den- 
mark. Half a century later Sweden broke away, while Norway 
and Denmark remained under one ruler. 

257. Russia. — The Russians are the chief people in the Slavic 
branch of the Indo-Europeans. Until the ninth century they 
had only tribal governments, although occupying a large part of 
the land we now know as Russia. Rurik, a brave chieftain from 
Norway, then became the founder of the first royal d3niasty in 
Russia. Under his successors, late in the tenth century, the 
Russians accepted the Orthodox Greek form of Christianity. 

In the thirteenth century a great calamity befell the people 
of Russia. The Mongols or Tartars from Asia overran the 
country, conquered the people, and held them in bondage for 
more than two centuries. Their civilization was thus greatly 
retarded and not until modern times did Russia play a great 
part among the nations. The deliverer of Russia from the Tartar 
hordes was Ivan the Great (1462-1505), who reestablished his 
nation on a firm and enduring basis. 

258. Other Slavic Peoples. — Another important Slavic peo- 
ple are the Poles. The great Slav movement between the second 
and the sixth century resulted in the dispersion of the Poles over 
a large portion of Central Europe. The majority of them came 
to occupy the extensive region between Russia and Germany, 
bordering on the Baltic Sea. Polish history, however, before the 
tenth century is legendary. Late in the tenth century the Poles 
were converted to Christianity. Later in the Middle Ages Poland 
came to be a very extensive country, much larger than France. 

EL. M. T. — 20 



298 The Nations of the Middle Ages 

Bohemia has been occupied by its present Slavic people since 
the sixth century. There were various tribes, under the common 
name of Czechs (cheks). In the ninth century they embraced 
Christianity introduced from Germany. For many years Bohemia 
formed a state in the Holy Roman Empire and at one time it was 
one of the most powerful reahns in Europe. 

Three other Slavic peoples — the Serbs, the Croats, and the 
Slovenes (slo-venz') — are together known as Jugo-Slavs (yoo'go- 
slavz) or South Slavs. The Serbs maintained a separate govern- 
ment since early in the Middle Ages, but their struggle for 
independence cost them more than a century of warfare. A 
Serbian empire, established by Stephen Dushan' (1331-1355) em- 
braced large parts of Macedonia and Greece ; but it soon crumbled 
under the ravages of the Asiatic Turks. 

The Croats came from the Carpathian mountain region in the 
seventh century. Early in the tenth century they won their in- 
dependence from the Eastern Roman Emperor ; but about two 
centuries later a large part of Croatia (kro-a'shi-a), as their country 
was called, was annexed to Hungary. The Slovenes, like the 
Croats, came from the Carpathian region in the sixth or seventh 
century and made their home south of the Danube, but their land 
was annexed by Austria. 

Questions and Topics. — I. Describe the form of government called 
feudalism (ch. XVIII). In what way did the use of gunpowder 
contribute to its downfall? the crusades? the growth of cities? 
What caused the decay of the cities of the Roman Empire? What 
caused the building of cities in the Middle Ages? What advantages 
has country life over city life? What advantages has city life over 
country life? Tell what you know about city building in Italy; in 
France. What was a guild? 

II. From what peoples are the French descended? What famous 
treaty was. made at Verdun? What part did Verdun play in the 
World War of 1914-1918? Write an essay on Saint Louis. Who was 
Philip the Fair, and what did he do for France? 

III. What was the general course of the Hundred Years' War? What 
right had the English king to the lands of France ? Is it ever desirable 



Slavic Peoples 299 

that a country be governed by another of different race and language ? 
What was the Black Death? Can such scourges be prevented at the 
present day? How? Under whose jurisdiction do such preventive 
measures come? Tell the story of Joan of Arc. 

IV. How did the nation we call Germany first begin? Why did it , 
not have a compact government? What can you say of the seven 
electors ? Who were the Hapsburgs, and why do we give them special 
attention? Describe the gaining of independence of Switzerland. 
W^hat was the importance of the Hanseatic League? 

V. Name the important Italian cities of the Middle Ages. Why 
did Venice become an important commercial power? What city is 
favorably compared to ancient Athens and why? What had caused 
Rome to fall into decay? Tell the story of Rienzi. What important 
movement did he begin? 

VI. What early races occupied Spain? Why was the marriage of 
Ferdinand and Isabella important ? What do you think of the charac- 
ter of Isabella? W^ho were the Moors, and when did they gain a foot- 
hold in Spain? Write an essay on Granada and the Alhambra (see en- 
cyclopedia) . 

VII. Name and locate the Scandinavian countries. Would you 
expect the Scandinavians or the Spaniards to be more virile and pro- 
gressive? Why? Why was Russia slow in becoming a great nation? 
What is the nature of the movement in that country known as Bolshe- 
vism? Name the important Slavic countries. 

Events and Dates. — Growth of Cities. The Hundred Years' War, 
1337-1453. Battle of Crecy, 1346. Battle of Poitiers, 1356. The 
Black Death, 1348. Joan of Arc, d. 143 1. Rudolph, first Hapsburg to 
become emperor, elected, 1273. The battle of Sempach and Swiss 
independence, 1386. The Hanseatic League. Kingdom of Spain 
formed by union of Castile and Aragon, 1479. Conquest of Granada 
and discovery of America, 1492. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden 
united (Union of Calmar) 1397. Ivan the Great (1462-1505) delivers 
Russia from the Tartars. 

For Further Reading. — Lodge, The Close of the Middle Ages. 
Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages. Cheyney, An Introduction 
to the Industrial and Social History of England. Ogg, Source Book in 
Medieval History. Robinson's Readings, Vol. I. 



CHAPTER XXII 

CIVILIZATION AND PROGRESS DURING THE MIDDLE 

AGES 



259. Why the Dark Ages. — ■ A primitive or barbarous people 
may be strong and mature in body and fully developed in imagina- 
tion and emotions while they are yet but children in intellect. 
No people is too stupid to learn a new language or to embrace a 
new religion. If we bear these facts in mind we can understand 
why Europe during the Middle Ages was so far behind ancient 
Greece and Rome in civilization. 

A great part of Europe was overrun by the barbarous Teutonic 
tribes of the north. From the peoples they conquered they ab- 
sorbed the Christian religion and many learned the language of 
Rome ; but they were not mature enough in mind and thought 
to take advantage of the culture, the arts, the science, the in- 
ventions of the conquered Romans. In all these, however, they 
were sure to excel in the future, for two reasons : (i) They were 
a strong, manly, hardy race, even surpassing the Roman in this 
respect. (2) They embraced Christianity. 

On these two great facts rested the future civilization of Europe. 
Had either of them been wanting, Europe would have made no 
such progress as she has made in the past thousand years. 

I. Language and Literature 

260. European Languages. — Many languages are spoken 
to-day in Europe. Those of western Europe may be divided 
into two great families — the Romance languages and the Teu- 
tonic languages. 

The Romance (Roman) languages are those based on Latin. 
When the barbarians came down from the north they gradually 

300 



< 



Language and Literature 301 

learned the speech of the people, that is, the Latin. But it was 
the spoken Latin of the common people, which differed con- 
siderably from the classical Latin as it was written. In the 
course of centuries the people's language differed more and more 
from the Latin, and the time came when the common people 
could not understand Latin at all. 

A language which is only spoken changes more rapidly than a 
written language, and people who have little communication 
with one another will not long be of the same speech if the lan- 
guage is not written. Thus the people of France and those of 
Spain ceased to understand one another, though in both coun- 
tries the language was derived from the Latin. In one country 
the spoken Latin gradually became the French language, and in 
the other it became Spanish. 

Portugal, Italy, and Roumania also derived their languages 
from the Latin, and these five — French, Spanish, Portuguese, 
Italian, and Roumanian, are the Romance languages. All are 
based on the Latin and, though distinct, they greatly resemble 
one another. 

We can imagine that if the printing press, railroads, and the 
telegraph had existed in those early times the Romance lan- 
guages would not have come into existence. Latin would have 
remained supreme. We can imagine also that if it were not for 
the printing press and our means of rapid communication the 
United States and England would not continue to be of the same 
speech, nor even the widely-separated. parts of our own country. 
Each would develop its own language, as the parts of Europe 
did in the Middle Ages. 

The Teutonic languages are those derived from the speech of 
northern Europe, used since far back in prehistoric times. They 
are the German, Dutch, Flemish, Danish, Swedish, and English.^ 

1 The English is made up of two languages ; i . the Anglo-Saxon, a Germanic 
tongue spoken in England before the Norman Conquest (1066), and (2) the Norman- 
French, brought over by the conquerors. These two slowly blended into one and 
formed the English language. 



302 The Nations of the Middle Ages 

The Slavic languages of eastern Europe include Russian, 
Polish, Czech, Serb, Bulgarian, and others. 
261. Songs of the Troubadours; National Romances. — The 

Romance languages were spoken for hundreds of years before 
they were written, and the same is true of the Teutonic and Slavic 
tongues. In all the countries of western Europe, even in Germany 
and England, books were written in Latin. But in the twelfth and 
thirteenth centuries, especially in southern France, songs of love 




Troubadours 

From a twelfth century manuscript. These strolling musicians sang their songs to 

the accompaniment of the harp, lute, or other instruments. The second man from 

the right is carrying a lute, the man behind him a harp. 

and chivalry were written in the people's tongue. The writers 
were of the knightly class and were known as the Troubadours 
(troo'ba-ddorz). They carried their songs from court to^court 
and sang them to the accompaniment of the lute. The most we 
know of the chivalry of the time comes to us through the songs 
of the Troubadours. 

In the north the poets preferred to sing of arms and adventure. 
The hero of the national epic of France was Roland, who lost 
his life in Spain while fighting the battles of his master, Charle- 
magne. 

The first great epic in the Spanish language told the story of 
the Cid, who thus became a national hero, though in real life he 
was a rapacious and cruel conqueror. 



Language and Literature 303 

In Germany many lyrical songs were produced during the 
Middle Ages, but the most famous German poem was the epic 
that told the story of Siegfried (seg'fred). Siegfried was a 
prince of the north who made a long Journey to Bur' gundy, that 
he might win the hand of the beautiful sister of the king of that 
country. 

Of all the stories of the Middle Ages there is none more charm- 
ing than the English romance of Arthur and his Knights of the 
Round Table. Arthur was supposed to have been king of Britain 
about the year 500, but it is not certain whether he was a real 
or only a mythical person. The many legends, the stories, and 
songs of Arthur were popular for centuries on the Continent as 
well as in England, and to this day they have not lost their charm. 
The great poem by Alfred Tennyson, Idylls of the King, is based 
on the story of Arthur. 

262. Other Medieval Literature. — In addition to the lyrical 
songs and the legendary romances of the early period, each of 
the leading nations began to produce other literature of an en- 
during character, England and Italy taking the lead. 

The first of the great English poets was Geoffrey Chaucer 
(1340-1400), who is called the Father of English Poetry. The 
greatest work of Chaucer is his Canterbury Tales. A company 
of thirty-two people, representing nearly all walks of English 
life, journey together on a pilgrimage to Canterbury. To be- 
guile the time as they go along, the pilgrims tell tales to one 
another, and these are put into verse by the poet. With the spell- 
ing corrected to modem standards, these tales furnish delight 
and charm to modem readers, as they did to those of Chaucer's 
day. 

The greatest of all Italian poets, Dan'te, belongs to the medie- 
val period. Dante was bom in 1265 of a Florentine family. 
His greatest poem. The Divine Comedy, the first great poem in 
the Italian language, places its author among the few great world- 
poets. There have been many English translations of The 
Divine Comedy. 



304 The Nations of the Middle Ages 

II. The Universities and Education 

263. Illiteracy of the Masses. — The great majority of the 
people during the Middle Ages were wholly without an educa- 
tion. They lived their simple life on their little farms as their 
fathers and grandfathers had done; they had their games and 
their festivals, they served their feudal landlords and paid heavy 
taxes, but they cared nothing for books and learning and knew 
little of the great world around them. 

The age of printing had not yet come, books were few, and 
newspapers and magazines, such as we have in abundance, did 
not exist. But as time passed " Little Schools " were founded 
in many places for boys and girls. In these reading, writing, 
and a little music were taught. Larger schools, known as Latin 
schools, to which boys only were admitted, were established 
also. But on the whole only a small percentage of the people 
had the advantage of these schools. 

264. The Universities and Student Life. — There are now in 
Europe many great seats of learning called universities. Most 
of them were founded in the Middle Ages, the first being about 
1200. The traditions that Alfred the Great founded the Uni- 
versity of Oxford and that Charlemagne founded the University 
of Paris are not based on fact, though both these great rulers 
were very friendly to education. 

The University of Paris was chartered about 1200 by Philip 
Augustus (sec. 243), and Oxford dates from about the same time. 
Still earlier Paris had become a seat of learning, especially with 
the coming of Ab'elard. A little later than 11 00 Abelard came 
to Paris, as a student. He soon surpassed his teachers as a de- 
bater and lecturer. At the age of thirty-six he was the most 
famous teacher in Europe, and thousands of students from all 
sections attended his classes. But the great teacher's life was 
embittered by an unfortunate love affair and by his being perse- 
cuted for heresy. 

In many other cities, as Toulouse (tod-lobz') and Orleans in 



Universities, Science 305 

France, Cambridge in England, Rome and Naples in Italy, 
Prague in Bohemia, and Cologne in Germany, universities grew 
up, usually in connection with church schools or monasteries. 
In them were taught law and theology, philosophy, and a little 
science. The Latin language was employed in all of them. At 
Paris a student was punished if he used the French language. 

The students sat on straw-covered floors, devoid of benches 
or seats of any sort, and listened to the professor expounding 
Aristotle (sec. 91) or some other ancient writer. They made no 
pretense of working out problems for themselves. 

Student life was wild and rough, and many a fight took place 
between students and the people of the town. The " rushes " 
and " hazing " of some of our colleges are derived from the 
practices of the Middle Ages. 

III. Science and Superstitions 

265. Study and Practice of Medicine. — The study of the 
natural sciences was not encouraged in the Middle Ages. The 
people seemed to feel that they had knowledge enough from the 
past, and made little effort to investigate. Studies now common 
with us, such as botany, geography, and even history, had no 
place in the schools of those times. There was a feeling that as 
nature was the work of God, it was irreverent for man to be too 
inquisitive about her affairs. 

There was some study of medicine, in various universities, but 
the science of medicine was exceedingly primitive and crude. 
Many remedies were supposed to be effective because nauseating. 
An English physician traveled about the country selling a medicine 
made of pulverized frogs. He wrote a book on the practice of 
medicine in which he refers to certain " disagreeable diseases," 
that is, light, self-curing diseases that bring no revenue to the 
doctor. There were three classes of medical men, — the regular 
physician, the surgeon, and the barber. A barber was permitted 
to treat bruises and minor ailments only. 



3o6 The Nations of the Middle Ages 

All through the Middle Ages the practice of medicine was mixed 
with astrology. The doctors as well as the people believed that 
the position of the moon, the movements of the stars, and even 
the hour of the day, afifected the body. It was also believed that 
the touching of the relics of the saints brought more cures than 
medicine, and for this and other reasons the physicians were held 
in low repute. 

Before the time of the Black Death (1348) sanitary measures 
and the study of the causes of disease were almost unknown. 
Epidemics were thought to be " visitations " of divine displeasure, 
or perchance buffetings from Satan. A pestilence might be 
caused by a conjunction of two planets, or some other phenomenon 
of the skies. Sometimes it was believed that the Jews, the lepers, 
or the insane poisoned the water, and these hapless people were 
persecuted to death in consequence. The theory that disease 
arose from natural causes that might be discovered and removed 
was denounced as irreligious, as "an attempt to baffle the divine 
judgment." 

Such ideas prevailed for several centuries, but after the time of 
the Black Death men began to clean streets, to filter water, and 
to study the causes of disease. From that time to the present 
medical science has made steady progress. The drugs and the 
knowledge of medicine brought from Arabia through the crusades 
(sec. 228) aided greatly in furthering medical science. 

266. Fantastic Beliefs and Superstitions. — Many absurd and 
fantastic beliefs prevailed throughout the Middle Ages and were ac- 
cepted even by learned men. It was believed, for example, that 
the body of an eagle was so hot that its eggs would be destroyed 
by the heat before hatching unless cold stones were mixed among 
them. The salamander, on the other hand, was so cold of body 
that fire could not burn it. It occurred to no one to examine 
and see if these things were true. 

Magicians and sorcerers played on the credulity of the people, 
and when a real thinker and true scientist arose he was apt to be 
mistaken for one of these charlatans. Roger Bacon of England 



Discoveries and Explorations 307 

was one of the greatest thinkers in the world's history; but he 
was accused of employing black magic, and in consequence he 
spent many years in prison. 

No people perhaps has ever been free from superstition. Its 
prevalence in the Middle Ages was especially notable. There 
was no lack of belief in phantoms and prodigies and visions, in 
bloody stars and fiery dragons in the sky. 

No story was more widely accepted as truth than that of the 
Wandering Jew, first told in the thirteenth century by a crusader 
returning from the Holy Land. In brief it is this : A Jew named 
Joseph Cartaph'ilus was a doorkeeper to Pontius Pilate. His 
age was thirty years. When Jesus was being led to Calvary to 
be crucified he stopped for a moment's rest at the door of Car- 
taphilus, but the Jew struck him and bade him move on. Jesus 
turned to him and said, " I go, but thou shalt tarry till I come." 
The Jew thus sentenced to await the second coming of Christ 
became a wanderer over the world. He was pictured as an aged 
man with flowing white beard and downcast eyes. He was often 
seen to weep, but never to smile. For ages and ages he traversed 
the countries of Europe on foot, and was seen now and then in 
towns and villages. He could not die ; he must await the coming 
of Christ. Sometimes he attended church services and at the 
mention of the name of Jesus he would beat his breast and burst 
into tears. 

IV. Discoveries and Explorations 

267. Geographical Knowledge ; Marco Polo. — If people are 
ignorant and contented with their ignorance, there is little hope of 
their improvement. The contentment is worse than the ignorance. 

In our age there is an intense desire to explore all lines of human 
knowledge, and this fact more than any other places us far in 
advance of the people of the Middle Ages. The men of that 
day were full of misinformation, much of which they could have 
corrected had they chosen to investigate, but they were too well 
contented with their knowledge to do so. 



3o8 The Nations of the Middle Ages 

About the great globe on which they lived their knowledge was 
meager. China and Japan, with which a few of their merchants 
traded, were like a far-off dreamland. The Atlantic Ocean 
had no known boundary on the west, and Africa stretched on 
and on to the southward beyond all human knowledge. 

Late in the thirteenth century Europe was partly awakened 
by the book of Marco Polo, an Italian. As a boy he had accom- 
panied his father to the kingdom of Cathay' (China). Here he 
remained for more than twenty years, and on his return to Europe 
he wrote a book describing the wonders of the far East. Polo's 
book served to rouse the European mind to some desire to study 
geography and to explore the unknown. 

268. Great Navigators. — More than a hundred years passed 
after the time of Marco Polo before the age of navigation and dis- 
covery was ushered in. One of the most progressive men of 
the age in promoting geographical knowledge was Prince Henry 
the Navigator, of Portugal (d. 1460), who spent forty-eight 
years of his life promoting a better knowledge of the seas. 

The mariner's compass had come into general use. This little 
instrument with its magnetic needle pointing ever northward 
enabled the mariner to know directions, however cloudy or foggy 
the weather. 

Within half a century after the death of Prince Henry four or 
five navigators and discoverers made immortal names for them- 
selves by penetrating far into the Sea of Darkness, as the At- 
lantic Ocean was called. By these voyages were dispelled many 
fantastic popular beUefs that still clung -in the medieval mind. 
The theory that the earth is a globe had been accepted by many 
men of education, but even some of them believed that the op- 
posite or " under " side of the earth was uninhabitable, for men 
could not walk with their heads downward. It was thought that 
since the earth sloped downward no ship would be able to return 
if it ventured too far down the slope. And it was thought, too, 
that under the tropics the sea boiled with fury and no life was 
possible in those hot regions. 



The Renaissance 309 

Among the navigators of the time one who will ever head the list 
is Christopher Columbus. The story of the great voyage across 
the Atlantic, in which Columbus, searching for a new route to 
Asia, discovered a new world hitherto unknown to Europe, is 
too well known to American pupils to need repeating here ; and 
the same is true of the stories of John Cabot of England and of 
Americus Vespucius, whose name was given to the great new 
double continent of the West. 

- Before the discovery of America Bartholomeu Dias (de'ash) 
had made a great voyage down the African coast, around the 
Cape of Good Hope, and some hundred miles into the Indian 
Ocean (1487). Eleven years later Vasco da Gama (ga'ma), tak- 
ing the same route, crossed the Indian Ocean and reached India. 
These voyages disclosed an all-water route to the far East. 

Far greater than the voyages of Dias and Da Gama was that 
of Ferdinand Magellan (ma-jel'an). With five small ships and 
two hundred men this dauntless seaman set forth on the stormy 
Atlantic (15 19). From Spain he sailed southwest around the 
southern point of South America, through the strait that bears 
his name, and swung out into the greatest of all oceans. So 
tranquil and calm was this vast body of water that Magellan 
called it the Pacific, which means peaceful. Three years after 
starting, the survivors of the crew returned to Spain, — but not 
the five ships and two hundred men. There were but eighteen 
men and one little vessel, the rest, including Magellan himself, 
having perished. 

The voyage of Magellan was one of the greatest in history. 
It dispelled forever the old ideas of the form and size of the "earth. 
It gave to the world a more accurate geographical knowledge 
than anything else had ever done. 

V. The Renaissance; Art and Architecture 

269. Revival of Learning. — The word Renaissance means 
re-birth. It is apphed to the general awakening of Europe in the 



3IO The Nations of the Middle Ages 

latter part of the Middle Ages to higher aspirations and greater 
desire for learning. The impulse to make voyages and discoveries 
was a result of the Renaissance ; as was also the new spirit in art 
and science and literature. One of the indirect causes of the 
Renaissance, as noted on a preceding page (sec. 228), was tlie 
impetus given European thought and culture by the crusades. 

Before this awakening the study of science was discouraged, 
the classic literature of ancient Greece and Rome was utterly 
neglected, the beauties of nature were not appreciated. The 
spirit of the Middle Ages led earnest men to flee from the tur- 
moils of the world, to shut themselves up in dismal cloisters, 
and spend their days in self-inflicted hardship and penitential 
prayer. 

The Renaissance awakened men to the joy of living, to placing 
a value on life as a divine gift. It inspired one to cultivate art, 
to study nature, and to make the best of one's talents. 

Through the study of nature were born the natural sciences, 
and these again brought about useful inventions and led to the 
wonderful revelations of Coper'nicus.^ With the Renaissance 
was born the spirit of progress. It ushered in the beginning of 
modern times. It infused into Western Europe the wonderful 
energy, the spirit of inquiry on which the progress of modern 
times is based. 

270. Leaders of the Renaissance. — The Renaissance had 
its beginning in Italy. From that country it spread into Spain, 
France, Germany, and England. 

As a pioneer in the revival of learning, Pe'trarch, the Italian 
poet (i 304-1 374), holds the highest place. Though himself a 
famous poet, Petrarch's greatest work was in the line of awaken- 
ing interest in the beauties of Greek and Latin literature. He 
searched in old libraries and musty garrets for long-forgotten 

1 Copernicus (1473-1543), a Polish astronomer, published the theory of the solar 
system that bears his name, — that the sun is fixed in the sky and that the earth is 
one of its family of planets revolving round it. Copernicus deferred announcing his 
theory for thirty-six years, fearing he would be persecuted for heresy. Galile'o, 
an Italian scientist, was afterward imprisoned for accepting the Coperoican theory. 



The Renaissance 311 

manuscripts, the works of Homer and Cicero and many others. 
He led hundreds of students to a love of these ancient classics. 

Petrarch was an intense lover of nature, the first man perhaps, 
says one writer, in hundreds of years to climb a mountain for the 
love of the journey. He has been called the first modern man. 
The practice of teaching the Greek and Latin classics in our colleges 
and universities had its beginning in the influence of Petrarch. 

A century or more after the time of Petrarch the Renaissance 
made its way beyond the Alps and spread to the northern coun- 
tries. One of the first to be named in this connection is Erasmus 
(e-raz'mus) of Rotterdam, who moved about and made himself 
at home wherever he could find congenial friends. Erasmus 
was a great scholar and an elegant writer. He was a merciless 
critic of evils in the church. In his most popular book. The 
Praise of Folly, he scores the fine-spun theories of theologians, 
the gluttony and corruption of priests and monks, and the super- 
stitious attitude of common people towards saints and images. 

In England the leader of the Renaissance was John Col'et of 
Oxford University. After a sojourn in Italy, where he sat at 
the feet of the greatest scholars of his time, he returned to Eng- 
land full of enthusiasm for the new learning. His lectures at- 
tracted wide attention, and among his admirers was Sir Thomas 
More. Even Erasmus, attracted by the fame of Colet, went to 
England, and these three, Colet, More, and Erasmus, labored 
together for the advance of education. 

271. Revival of Art; Michelangelo.^ — There was a wonder- 
ful outburst of genius in Italy as a result of the Renaissance. 
It found expression in painting, sculpture, and architecture. 
Only a few of the great artists can be noticed here. 

1 Pope Julius II, a patron of the arts, gathered about him the famous trio, 
Bramante (bra-man'ta) the architect of St. Peters, Michelangelo (mi-kel-an'je-lo), 
and Raph'ael, all of whom are present in the group pictured in the frontispiece of 
this book, which is from a painting in the Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, 
D.C. The pope is seated on an armchair with Bramante and Raphael at his left. 
Michelangelo stands beside the lady. The old Greek statue of Apollo Belvedere 
was unearthed near Rome in the fifteenth century. It is now in the Vatican. 



312 The Nations of the Middle Ages 

At the head of the Ust is the name of Michelangelo (1475- 
1564). As an artist, a sculptor, an architect, and a poet he stands 
high in the class of immortals, but his chief joy was in sculpture. 
If any man in history ranks with Phidias (sec. 82) as a sculptor, 
it is Michelangelo. 

Born in Florence of poor parents, Michelangelo as a boy 
showed such indications of talent that he was invited to make 
his home in the palace and sit at the table of the governor of that 
city. At the age of twenty he went to Rome and was soon in 
the employ of the pope. He lived to the great age of eighty- 
nine, but was never married. So devoted was he to the arts 
that as he grew older he became unsocial and lonely. 

The most famous of his works in sculpture are his statues of 
Moses 1 and David. In architecture the world is indebted to 
him for the wonderful dome of St. Peter's cathedral at Rome, 
while the frescoing of the Sistine (sis'ten) Chapel with its four 
hundred figures displays his skill as a painter. " The Last Judg- 
ment," which Michelangelo painted after he was sixty years 
old, is one of the most famous pictures in existence. 

Another great product of the Italian Renaissance was Raphael 
(1483-1520), whose fame is as enduring as that of Michelangelo. 
Raphael is best known by the " Sistine Madonna " (Virgin and 
Child), which through its millions of reproductions is familiar to 
all. 

Leonardo da Vinci (ven'che, 1452-15 19) must be ranked with 
the two great artists mentioned above. He was even more ver- 
satile than Michelangelo. He was not only an artist of the first 
rank ; he was also a sculptor, an architect, an engineer, a musician, 
a scientist, and a philosopher. In every one of these professions 
he ranked among the greatest of his time. Some writers pro- 



1 The statue of Moses pictured on the opposite page was wrought in marble. ' It 
was ordered by Pope JuHus II, for his tomb in Rome. Moses is supposed to have 
just come down from Mt. Sinai, to find the Israehtes worshiping the golden calf. 
His right hand clasps the tables of the law, and he sits, the incarnation of majestic 
indignation and menace. 



^m 







> 



I 



m 



m^,. 




jTi I I i I 

Statue of Moses, by Michelangelo 





MoNA Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci 



The Renaissance 313 

nounce him the greatest man that ever lived. Da Vinci's best- 
known painting is " Mona Lisa" (mo'na le'za), now in Paris.^ 
Art critics pronounce this the finest portrait ever painted. 

272. Great Cathedrals. — A cathedral is the chief church of 
a bishop's diocese, and is usually large and of beautiful architec- 
tural finish. The Middle Ages produced many stone castles (sec. 
215), the fortresses and homes of the nobility. But the cathedral 
was a place of public worship, and its architectural beauty far 
surpassed that of a castle. In many of the cathedrals the lofty 
spires and the wonderful vistas of arches and pillars astound 
the beholder with their beauty and grandeur. 

Whatever may be said of the backwardness of the Middle Ages 
in most respects, in this one regard, architecture, that period 
equaled any other period in the world's history. One reason 
is that the art of producing fine buildings was especially encour- 
aged by the church. 

In many cities in Europe are found great cathedrals. Nearly 
all of them were erected, or at least begun, in the Middle Ages. 
Some of them were hundreds of years in building. A few of the 
cities having grand cathedrals are Venice (page 292) and Milan 
in Italy, Ulm and Cologne in Germany, Rheims (pages 287-288) 
and Rouen (rwaN) in France, Canterbury (page 386), Lincoln, 
and York in England. 

273. Invention of Printing. — Of all the products of the Re- 
naissance the invention of printing stands among the most use- 
ful. As late as the middle of the fifteenth century books were 
made by hand. A long and tedious process it was to write out 
a book with a pen. Newspapers and magazines did not exist, 
and the common people never learned to read. 

1 In Mona Lisa, whose portrait is shown on the opposite page, the artist found 
a sitter whose face and smile possessed to a singular degree the haunting enigmatic 
charm in which he delighted. He is said to have worked at her portrait for four 
years, causing music to be played during the sittings, that the rapt expression might 
not fade from her face. The picture was bought by King Francis I of France. 
It was stolen from the Louvre in igii, but was found in Florence and restored to 
the Louvre in 1914. 

EL. M. T. — 21 



314 The Nations of the Middle Ages 

The invention of printing from movable type about 1450 is 
ascribed to John Gutenberg (goo'ten-berK), of Mainz (mints), 
Germany. Within half a century Europe could boast more than 
a thousand printing presses. Books were printed in many lan- 
guages, libraries were established in many towns. Learning 
was no longer confined to a favored few. Thousands of people 
learned to read and a great step had been taken toward the gen- 
eral education of the masses. 



VL Summary of the Middle Ages 

274. We have now come to the end of the period, covering 
a thousand years of the world's life, often called the Middle 
Ages. A backward glance will remind us of the panorama of 
the nations in their birth-struggle. 

We see first the tottering, crumbling Roman Empire, which 
in the days of its glory had governed the world. On its ruins 
are founded the nations of Europe as we know them to-day. The 
innumerable Teutonic tribes -of the north, which Caesar had 
forced back to their native haunts, now pour in torrential vol- 
umes over the Alps, the Apennines, and the Pyrenees. The 
Vandals find a lodgment in North Africa and the Visigoths in 
Spain. The Lombards occupy northern Italy, and the Franks 
make a permanent home for themselves in Gaul. 

Then begins a long period of darkness, with a commingling 
of races and languages and customs, a period of turmoil and dis- 
order and ignorance, but a period of longing of a virile people 
for light and opportunity. 

The youthful nations beat back the murderous Huns, dealing 
them a finishing blow on the plains of Chalons. But later from 
the East comes a still more menacing foe. A new religion, an- 
tagonistic to Christianity, comes out of Arabia with its motto 
to make converts by the edge of the sword. In its unrestrained 
fanaticism it overwhelms Mesopotamia and Persia ; it subdues 
the Holy Land that had given to the world the Bible and ths 



Summary of the Middle Ages 315 

religion of Jesus ; it sweeps westward and embraces all North 
African lands, until the crescent extends from the Euphrates 
Valley to the Strait of Gibraltar. Spain falls beneath the tread 
of the Moslem hordes, and the fate of Christian Europe trembles 
in the balance. But at the battle of Tours the invaders recoil 
under the blows of Charles Martel and Europe is saved. 

The centuries pass. Charlemagne builds a great empire and 
it crumbles away. Europe is divided into thousands of feudal 
manors and for hundreds of years the knight of chivalry over- 
shadows the king as well as the common man. But at length 
a little gunpowder reduces men to the same level on the field of 
battle, while the invention of printing serves to equalize them 
in other walks of life. A new light has dawned, a new spirit 
takes hold of the European mind. Italy takes the lead in the 
great awakening which we call the Renaissance ; she becomes 
the teacher of Europe ; she does for the other nations what 
Greece had done for her fifteen hundred years before. 

At length feudalism and knighthood fall before the rising 
kingdoms ; at the end of the Middle Ages the absolute monarch 
holds the center of the stage in the great drama ; and so he will 
for three hundred years ; but in time he too must give place to a 
mightier power, the power of the people, as we shall see in the 
following chapters. 

Questions and Topics. — I. What is the reason for comparing 
primitive peoples to children? Why can a primitive people learn a 
language or a religion easier than science? What two facts made a 
high grade of civilization in Europe certain? Which are the Romance 
languages, and why so called? the Teutonic languages? the Slavic 
languages? Out of what did the English language develop? Why 
do we say that an unwritten language changes more rapidly than one 
that is written? Who were the troubadours? Tell the story of Sieg- 
fried; of King Arthur. Tell something of the writings of Chaucer; 
of Dante. 

II. State briefly the condition of the schools and of education dur- 
ing the Middle Ages. What is a university, and how does it differ 
from a college? How does a college differ from an academy? from 



3i6 The Nations of the Middle Ages 

a high school? Tell how the great universities of Europe were founded, 
and name the important ones. 

III. What was the condition of the study of science in the Middle 
Ages? How does science differ from art? What persons were per- 
mitted to practice medicine during this period? How did the prac- 
tice of medicine of the period differ from the practice of medicine to- 
day? How was it affected by the crusades? Write a brief theme on 
Roger Bacon and his contributions to science (see encyclopedia). 

IV. Can you explain why contentment is worse than ignorance? 
Who was Marco Polo and what did his writings do for Europe ? Name 
some of the achievements of the great discoverers. 

V. What was the Renaissance and what did it do for Europe? 
What can you tell of the life of Petrarch? of Erasmus? of Colet? 
In what ways can we enjoy nature? Discuss the work of Michel- 
angelo. With what Greek sculptor is he compared, and why? What 
can you tell of Raphael? of Leonardo da Vinci? Write an essay on 
cathedrals. What result did the invention of printing have on educa- 
tion and progress? Explain how a book was produced before Guten- 
berg's invention. Compare this with the present method. What 
is meant by the "cylinder press"? When and by whom was it in- 
vented? Have you seen a modern printing press work? 

VI. Give a brief summary of the Middle Ages. Do you see any 
marks of progress between the beginning of the age and the end? 

Events and Dates. — Birth of Dante, 1265; of Chaucer, 1340. 
Founding of the universities of Oxford and Paris, about 1200. Pe- 
trarch, 1304-1374. Michelangelo, 1475-1564. Raphael, 1483-1520. 
Da Vinci, 1452-15 19. Invention of printing, about 1450. 

For Further Reading. — Bateson, Medieval England (Story of the 
Nations series). Baniard, Companion to English History (essays by 
various writers). Ingram, History of Slavery and Serfdom. Hender- 
son, History of Germany in the Middle Ages. Adams, Civilization during 
the Middle Ages. Ogg's, Source Book of Medieval History. Robinson's 
Readings in European History, I, ch. XVIII. 



THE PERIOD OF THE REFORMATION 

CHAPTER XXIII 
THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION IN GERMANY 

I. European Conditions 

275 Fall of Constantinople. — The great city on the Bos- 
porus, founded by Constantine the Great and called by his name 
(sec. 186), became the capital of the eastern section of the Roman 
Empire ; and when Rome fell into the hands of the invaders 
from the north, Constantinople continued to be the capital of 
the Eastern Empire, or Byzantine Empire, for a thousand years 
longer. When the Mohammedan hordes overran and conquered 
North Africa and Spain (sec. 204), they also attacked Constanti- 
nople, but they were beaten back and the city was saved. 

Six hundred years later a fierce people called Turks came from 
central Asia, driven by a still fiercer people called Mongols. 
The Turks, who had been converted to Mohammedanism, soon 
began to encroach on southeastern Europe. They conquered 
Thessaly, Macedonia, and Bulgaria. Half a century later they 
tightened their coils about the city of the Bosporus. A heroic 
defense of forty days against a besieging army of 200,000 was fruit- 
less, and Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks in 1453. 

For a hundred years longer the Turks continued their conquests 
in Europe, and they became a terror to Christendom. But in 
1529 they suffered a defeat at Vienna, and in 1571 in the naval 
battle of Lepan'to their fleet was destroyed. After the seven- 
teenth century Turkish power in Europe gradually declined. "• 

'In 1683 a large Turkish army again besieged Vienna; it was driven oS by a 
Polish army under King John Sobieski (so-byes'ke) of Poland, who thus made him- 
self for a time the hero of Christendom. 

317 



The Period of the Reformation 




Emperor Charles V 
From a painting by Titian, in Madrid. 

276. The Empire. — The great empire founded by Charle- 
magne (sec. 208) comprised nearly all of central and western 
Europe, but after the death of this monarch it fell to pieces and 
in time the emperor came to be little more than the king of Ger- 
many. At the beginning of the modern period Germany and the 
Empire were one and the same thing. But Germany was di- 
vided into three hundred little states, independent, except that 
they were loosely bound together by the Empire (map following 
page 344). 

The electors (sec. 249) usually chose as emperor a man who 
was already a powerful ruler in Europe ; but as head of the Em- 
pire he was without an army, without a navy, and without an 



Beginnings of the Reformation 319 

income. The title was an honorary title and the German states 
were almost self-governing. 

277. Emperor Charles V. — In the city of Ghent was born in 
1500 a prince of the house of Hapsburg who was destined to 
become, before he reached his twentieth year, the most powerful 
ruler of his time. For hundreds of years the Hapsburg family had 
been one of the most prominent in Europe, and recently its for- 
tunes had been greatly enhanced by several brilliant marriages. 
The head of the Hapsburg house, Maximil'ian of Austria, who 
was also emperor, married Princess Mary of Burgundy, heiress 
to the throne of the Netherlands. Their son Philip married 
Joan, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. The prince 
born in Ghent in 1500 was the son of Philip and Joan ; he was 
named Charles. 

While Charles was yet a child his father died and thus he in- 
herited the Netherlands, or what is now called Holland and 
Belgium. When he was sixteen years old his grandfather Fer- 
dinand died and he inherited the kingdom of Spain. When 
Charles was nineteen his grandfather Maximilian died and he 
fell heir to Austria. Before the end of the same year he was 
elected emperor. 

Note the vast possessions of this youthful sovereign. In 
addition to Spain and the Netherlands, Austria and the German 
Empire, he was master of Naples and Sicily (which he inherited 
from Ferdinand of Spain) and, through the discoveries of 
Columbus, of the boundless territories of the New World. The 
possessions of Charles V were far more extensive than those of 
any other sovereign in the world. 

II. Beginnings of the Reformation 

278. Causes. — The rehgious revolution of the sixteenth cen- 
tury known as the Reformation was a movement of tremendous 
importance. It brought disruption to the ancient church and 
led nearly half of European Christendom into opposition to 
papal supremacy. 



320 The Period of the Reformation 

One cause of the Reformation was the existence of scandalous 
abuses in the government and discipline of the church. Devout 
Catholics deplored the conditions and hoped for reform ; but 
most of them believed that the reform should come from within 
and that the church should not be disrupted. 

Another cause was the Renaissance, that revival of learning 
which made men impatient with the restraints put upon the 
conscience by the theology of the Middle Ages. Still another 
was the fact that kings and rulers were jealous of the temporal 
powers of the pope. There had been age-long disputes about 
the balance of power between -popes and rulers — • whether the 
church and church officers should or should not come under civil 
law, and whether the church or the state should have control 
of wills and marriages and church property. Many rulers felt 
that they were not independent, and when the break came some 
of them readily joined the new movement. 

279. The Great Schism. — A schism (siz'm) is a split in the 
church. It may or may not involve differences in doctrine. The 
Greek Schism was the separation of the eastern or Greek Catholic 
Church from the Roman Catholic early in the Middle Ages — a 
separation that continues to this day. 

The Great Schism, on the other hand, was a temporary split 
in the government of the western or Roman Catholic Church, 
caused by rival claims to the papal throne. It began in 1378 
and continued about forty years. 

The Babylonian Captivity of the papacy (sec. 253) ended in 
1377 when the pope and most of the cardinals removed from 
Avignon to Rome. The next year the pope died. The college of 
cardinals thereupon met at Rome and elected Urban VI as pope. 
But most of the cardinals soon repented of their choice ; they 
met again, declared Urban deposed, and named as pope a man 
who took the name of Clement VII. Urban refused to give up 
and thus there were two claimants to the throne of Saint Peter, 
each calling himself pope. To this day Catholic authorities are 
not agreed as to which was the true pope. Urban made his 



Beginnings of the Reformation 



321 



headquarters at Rome, and Clement made his at Avignon in 
southern France. On the death of each pope a successor was 
elected by his faction of the cardinals, and so the schism continued. 

In 1409 a council, called to meet at Pisa (pe'sa) to heal the 
schism, deposed both popes and secured the election of a third. 
Both the rival pontiffs 
refused to yield, and 
there were now three 
claimants instead of 
two. The schism was 
finally healed and 
Christendom reunited 
at the Council of Con- 
stance, 1414-1418. 

The Great Schism 
was one of the most 
important causes of the 
Reformation. A lead- 
ing Catholic writer de- 
clares that nothing did 
so much as this schism 
to prepare the way for 
the defection from the 
papacy in the sixteenth 
century. It led great 
numbers of people, 
who had never doubted before, to doubt the authority of the pope. 

280. Wyclif. — John Wyc'lif, born in the northern part of 
England (1320), became a graduate and then a professor of Ox- 
ford University. He was also a parish priest and a man of public 
affairs. On one occasion he was sent by the king to the con- 
tinent to arrange terms of peace with France. On the advice 
of Wyclif, Parliament discontinued paying the tribute to the 
church that had been pledged by King John (sec. 236), though 
it had been paid annually for more than a hundred years, 




Wyclip's Pulpit 

Now in the parish church of which he was rector, at 
Lutterworth, England. 



322 The Period of the Reformation 

Wyclif became a notable preacher and writer. Early in his 
career he began to doubt some of the Catholic doctrines. Later 
he attacked many of the practices of the church as well as 
the doctrine of papal supremacy. In 1377 Wyclif was sum- 
moned to London to stand trial for heresy. But as the 
people believed him to be a true reformer and as the powerful 
Duke of Lan'caster protected him, he escaped being condemned. 
The next year the Great Schism began. This proved a pro- 
tecting shield to the English reformer, since the rival popes were 
so absorbed in their contest with each other that they had no 
time to give to him. Moreover, the schism furnished Wyclif 
a powerful argument against the papacy. He boldly declared 
that the popes were not the vicars of Christ and that the church 
would be better off without any pope at all. 

John Wyclif had many thousands of followers, who came to 
be called Lollards. ^ From Oxford he sent out preachers to pro- 
claim his doctrines. But the crowning work of his life was 
an English translation of the Bible made under his supervision, 
or at least under his influence. This English Bible, probably trans- 
lated in part by himself, was widely read and it helped to fix 
the form of English prose ; for most English literature up to that 
time was poetry. Wyclif died in 1384. He was a man of blame- 
less life and of unwearied energy. He has been called the " Morn- 
ing Star of the Reformation." 

281. John Hus. — The most conspicuous follower of Wyclif 
was John Hus of Bohemia. The two men never met. Hus was a 
schoolboy of fifteen at the time of Wyclif's death. Wyclif's writ- 
ings had been translated and spread over the Continent, and they 
made a powerful impression on the youthful mind of Hus. 

After graduating at the University of Prague, Hus became a 
teacher and a preacher. He declared that no man on earth has 
the power to forgive sins, ^ that remission of sins comes through 

1 An old word meaning mumblers, that is, men who mumbled prayers or psalms. 

2 The Catholic sacrament of Penance includes confession to a priest, the impo- 
sition of various tests of repentance, and absolution (forgiveness) by the priest. 



Martin Luther 323 

repentance alone, and he urged the people to search the Scrip- 
tures for the words of eternal life. 

After Hus had preached for some years and had won great 
numbers of his fellow countrymen to his way of thinking, he 
was called to answer a charge of heresy. The great church 
council at Constance (sec. 279) summoned Hus to its presence. 
He went and was condemned for teaching heresy. Repeatedly 
he was offered his freedom if he would recant what he had taught, 
but he refused and was burned at the stake (July, 141 5). 

In consequence of Hus's death the Bohemians rose in rebellion, 
and a war of many years, known as the Hussite War, followed, 
finally ending in a compromise. 

III. Martin Luther (1483-1546) 

282. Boyhood and Early Life. — Among the reformers of 
the sixteenth century the greatest was Martin Luther. 

Born at the little town of Eisleben (is'la-ben), at the foot of 
the Harz (harts) Mountains in Saxony, of poor parents, he spent 
his childhood among the humblest surroundings. In 1501 he 
entered the university at Erfurt (er'foort), and took his master's 
degree four years later. He surpassed all his fellow students 
in composition and eloquence. His father had intended him to 
be a lawyer, but he was very religious, even from childhood, 
and he unexpectedly entered an Augustinian convent and be- 
came a friar (1505). Two years later he was ordained a priest. 
While in the convent Luther was greatly distressed about his 
soul's salvation. The regular exercises of the convent, in which 
he diligently engaged, did not bring comfort. He then studied 
the Bible, until he knew large portions of it by heart. He also 
read the works of Saint Augustine. At last he came to the be- 
lief that salvation comes not of good works, but by grace through 
faith. 

This doctrine Luther began to preach, and a few years later, 
when called to a professorship in 'the newly founded University 



324 The Period of the Reformation 

of Wittenberg (vit'en-berK), in Saxony, he taught the same 
thing. He did not seem to reahze that his teachings might be 
in conflict with the prevaihng doctrines of the church. As a 
teacher and preacher Luther was very popular, and hundreds of 
students came to Wittenberg, drawn by his eloquence. 

283. Luther against Tetzel. — In 1517 John Tetzel traveled 
through Germany preaching indulgences, and from this fact the 
occasion arose which led Luther to break with the church, though 
at first he had not dreamed of such a result. An indulgence is a 
letter of pardon issued by the pope to a repentant sinner, the pur- 
pose of which is to remit temporal punishment for sin, and the 
benefits are applied to the dead suffering in purgatory, as well as 
to the living. An indulgence may be granted on various condi- 
tions, such as fastings, pilgrimages, various works of charity or 
mercy, or on the payment of money for church purposes. 

Tetzel was an unfortunate choice as an agent in Germany, 
and no doubt he exceeded his authority. In his hands the distri- 
bution of indulgences for moneys became a scandal. Luther 
wrote and taught and preached against the traffic, declaring that 
one's whole life should be a continuous repentance and advising 
the people not to spend their money for indulgences. 

He embodied these opinions in a series of ninety-five theses, or 
propositions for debate, which he nailed to the door of the Castle 
Church at Wittenberg (October 31, 15 17). There were no news- 
papers or magazines in the Middle Ages, and it was customary to 
publish one's opinions in this way. 

Luther was astonished at the sensation created by his theses. 
In two weeks they had spread over all Germany and they touched 
a responsive chord with the people. Luther had yet no thought 
of leaving the church ; he felt that he was working for its honor 
and not against it. No one seemed to foresee that a great re- 
ligious revolution was at hand. Even the pope, Leo X, learning 
of the commotion in Germany, pronounced it a " squabble of 

1 Contributions for rebuilding St. Peter's Church at Rome. Tetzel was reported 
to have said, " As soon as the money rattles in the box, a soul flies out of purgatory." 



Martin Luther 



325 



the monks " and referred to " Brother Martin " as " a wonder- 
ful genius." 

284. Address to the Christian Nobility ; Burning of the Papal 
Bull. — Events moved rapidly. Luther kept on preaching 
and writing. Multitudes of students flocked to Wittenberg to 




Castle Church at Wittenberg 

The wooden doors of Luther's time were burned in the eighteenth century. They 

were replaced in 1858 by metal doors inscribed with the original Latin text of Luther's 

ninety-five theses. Within the church are the tombs of Luther, Melanchthon, and 

Frederick the Wise. 



326 The Period of the Reformation 

hear him. The central thought of his teaching was that sal- 
vation comes through repentance and faith and not through 
indulgences. 

When the authorities realized that such doctrine would subvert 
the teaching of the church, it was determined that Luther must 
be refuted and silenced. Dr. John Eck, one of the ablest scholars 
in Europe, was chosen to refute the teachings of the Saxon friar. 
Eck and Luther met at Leipzig (llp'sik), and for many days the 
two debated publicly the doctrines of the church. Here Luther 
took the advanced ground that popes and general councils might 
err, that in fact they had often erred, and that the only true and 
safe guide for the conscience of the Christian was the Holy Scrip- 
tures. 

Soon after this disputation with Dr. Eck, Luther published 
the most stirring book that he ever wrote — An Address to the 
Christian Nobility oj the German Nation. This book was a clarion 
call. It awakened the nation as a bugle awakens a sleeping army. 
In it the writer maintained, among other points : 

(i) That the Bible is the only foundation of Christian truth. 

(2) That the pope is not rightfully the hea,d of the church. 

(3) That all Christian believers are priests. 

(4) That the monasteries ought to be abolished, nor should 
the vows of monks and nuns be considered binding.^ 

After such a radical publication Luther could have no hope of 
reconciliation. It is clear that he was fully resolved to break 
finally with the church of the Middle Ages, and to found a new 
organization based on the principles he had set forth. The 
situation was of grave and serious responsibility. 

No Catholic, however devout, could deny that the abuses of 
the church were serious and of long standing. But could it not 
be reformed from within? For a thousand years the church 
had stood like a rock when kingdoms and empires had crumbled 
and fallen. It is true that the abuses and corruptions were many, 
as Catholic writers freely admit, but it is also true that millions 
1 Luther himself later married a nun. 



Martin Luther 327 

of people for generations had regarded the church as a nourish- 
ing mother, from the cradle to the grave. Whatever its abuses, 
it had accomplished great good also. Was this great organiza- 
tion now to be torn asunder and disrupted at the call of the Saxon 
reformer ? 

In September, 1520, Pope Leo issued his bull or decree of ex- 
communication against Luther, declaring him outside the pale 
of the church. Three months later Luther showed a defiance 
and contempt of the papal bull by burning a copy of it in the 
open square of Wittenberg. 

285. Frederick the Wise; the Diet of Worms (1521). — 
Luther could not have succeeded in doing what he did but for 
the protection of a powerful friend — Frederick the Wise, Elector 
of Saxony, a ruler known far and near for his ability and integrity. 
In an age of venality, when even the crown of the Empire was 
sold to the highest bidder, the crown was offered to Frederick 
without a bribe, but he refused it.^ 

The Protestant world of to-day recognizes that on three different 
occasions the continuance of the Reformation depended on the 
decision of Frederick the Wise. In 15 18 Luther was summoned 
to Rome to stand trial for heresy ; but Frederick refused to let 
him go and demanded that the trial take place on German soil. 
Again, when the pope excommunicated Luther, it was Frederick's 
duty as a true son of the church to execute the decree and deny 
Luther the protection of the laws, but again he refused. 

Now came the Diet of Worms (vorms), which proved to be 
the supreme crisis of the Reformation. Worms was a little 
city on the banks of the river Rhine, many days journey from 
Saxony. The diet or congress which met there in the spring 
of 1 52 1 was a great gathering. It was called by the emperor, 
Charles V, who attended in person, with many great dignitaries 
of church and state. 

1 The crown cost Charles V 850,000 florins (about $400,000), none of which was 
accepted by Frederick, who was one of the electors. He even forbade his servants 
to accept gifts. 



328 The Period of the Reformation 

Luther was summoned to present himself at this diet to answer 
for his alleged teaching contrary to the doctrines of the church; 
he was promised a safe-conduct for his return. As he proceeded 
on the way throngs of people gathered to get a glimpse of the 
Saxon preacher who had set all Europe ablaze. 

The diet met in the castle and here in the midst of his dig- 
nitaries sat the great emperor whose dominions were more ex- 
tensive than those of Charlemagne. Luther appeared before this 
august body and was asked to retract what he had written con- 
trary to the teachings of the church. In an impressive speech he 
declared that it was dangerous for a man to violate his own con- 
science, and that he could not and would not retract unless con- 
vinced from the Holy Scriptures, or by sound reasoning. 

A few days later Luther departed for his home. The diet pro- 
nounced him a heretic, and the ban of the Empire was issued 
against him. By this ban he was denounced as an arch-heretic, 
a devil in the dress of a monk, was cast outside the protection 
of the law, and all persons were forbidden to furnish him food 
or shelter. Magistrates were directed to seize him wherever he 
could be found. And one of them did seize him. It was Frederick 
the Wise of Saxony. 

286. Luther at the Wartburg. — ' As Luther was proceeding 
homeward a band of horsemen captured him (by previous ar- 
rangement) and carried him to the Wartburg (vart'boorK), one of 
Frederick's castles, near the Thurin'gian Forest. The object 
was to save the reformer from the hands of his enemies. Thus 
for the third time did Frederick the Wise become the promoter 
of the Reformation by preserving the life of its leader. 

For many months Luther remained at the Wartburg, his friends 
not knowing what had become of him. He spent his time trans- 
lating the Bible into the German language. And it is a remark- 
able fact that this translation remains the standard in most of 
Germany to this day. 

Luther suddenly returned to Wittenberg in the spring of 1522 
to aid in quelling disorders among the people. A few years later 




Title Page or Luther's New Testament 

This book was translated from the Latin and published in 1523. The medallions 
in the corners are symbols of the four Evangelists. These symbols are taken from 
the book of Ezekiel and the book of Revelation. The wmged man in the upper 
left-hand comer stands for Saint Matthew, the winged Hon in the upper right for 
Saint Mark, the eagle in the lower left for Saint John, and the winged bull for 

Saint Luke. 

EL. M. T. 22 329 



330 The Period of the Reformation 

there was a great uprising of the peasants in many parts of Ger- 
many, and the princes found it necessary to put them down 
with the sword. The poor peasants were sadly misled by radi- 
cals, some of whom pretended to be prophets. Luther saw 
that all his work was in danger of being destroyed, for he well 
knew that radicalism would kill any reform movement. He 
therefore sided with the princes and urged them to restore order 
at any cost. 

The reform in the church service by Luther and his followers 
was not radical, but moderate. Preaching and congregational 
singing were given a prominent place and the Latin mass was 
replaced by a simple service in the language of the people. 



IV. Charles V and the Reformation 

287. Spread of the Reform Movement ; Charles V. — As 

mentioned before (sec. 277), Charles V was the most powerful 
prince of his time, or of any time since the days of Charlemagne. 
He was elected emperor two years after Luther had posted his 
propositions on the church door at Wittenberg, and it was two 
years after his election when he called together the famous diet at 
the city of Worms (1521). By this time the Lutheran movement 
had spread over a great part of north Germany and had_ gained 
some foothold in the south. 

The emperor was a true Catholic, devoted to the church, but 
for two reasons he was not energetic at the outset in trying to 
suppress the movement started by Luther. First, he was not 
very friendly to the pope at this time, and no doubt believed 
that the latter might be taught a good lesson by the revolt. 
Second, several of the great German princes, like Frederick the 
Wise, were friendly to the reformer, and Charles had to deal 
gently in any matter pertaining to their territories. 

In later years, when the emperor was convinced that the break 
in the church was very serious and was becoming more extensive 
every year, even spreading to other countries, he determined 



I 



Charles V and the Reformation 331 

to put an end to it if he could. But for a score of years he was 
thwarted by some outside agent — French, Turk, or African — 
every time he made the attempt. 

288. The "Protestants"; the Augsburg Confession. — 
First, there was a long war between Emperor Charles and Francis 
I, king of France, which ended in 1529 with a victory for Charles. 
A diet was then held at Spires and a decree was issued there for- 
bidding the further spread of Luther's teachings. As Lutheran 
princes entered a protest against this decree (i 529), they were called 
Protestants, and the name was later given to all western Chris- 
tians who rejected the pope's authority. 

Again, however, Charles was thwarted in his effort to crush 
the Protestants. Within the same year the Turks with a great 
army appeared under the walls of Vienna (sec. 275). Charles 
was obliged to ask his Protestant subjects to aid the Catholics 
in driving out the Turks, and they did so. Thus again was the 
religious war between Catholics and Protestants deferred. 

The next year, 1530, an important diet was held at Augsburg. 
At this diet the Protestants presented a statement of their beliefs, 
a confession of faith which came to be known as the Augsburg 
Confession. This was the first great Protestant creed, and it is 
still the distinctive creed of all the Lutheran churches throughout 
the world, numbering more than fifty million souls. The writing 
of the confession was the work of Philip Melanch'thon, a co-worker 
of Luther, known over Europe for his scholarship. 

289. The First Religious War. — Soon after the Diet of Augs- 
burg Charles made ready to strike Protestantism in Germany, 
but at this moment the Mohammedans in North Africa claimed 
his attention. He defeated them, but it required several years, 
at the end of which another war with France broke out. In 
fact, the emperor was deterred in one way and another from draw- 
ing the sword on Protestant Germany until 1547. The Reforma- 
tion had then been progressing for thirty years. Protestantism 
was now well established and had millions of adherents when 
the religious wars at last began. 



332 



The Period of the Reformation 



The religious war that broke out in 1 547 was entangled with a 
political contest in Saxony. At first Charles was quite successful ; 
he was led to believe that his victory was complete and final. 
But several years later the whole country blazed up again and 
hostilities were resumed. This time Charles was defeated and 
almost taken captive. 

The warring parties at length agreed to a truce, and the reli- 
gious peace of Augsburg was signed in 1555. By this treaty the 
princes of Germany were each left to choose for his people the 
Catholic or Lutheran faith as he preferred. This agreement 

brought peace to Ger- 
many for more than 
sixty years — until the 
outbreak of the Thirty 
Years' War in the fol- 
lowing century. 

Weary of the nu- 
merous wars and the 
heavy burden of his 
many crowns, Charles 
V determined to retire 
and spend the evening 
of his days in rqst and 
quiet. He resigned all 
his crowns in 1555 and 
1556 and retired to a 
monastery in Spain, 
where two years later 
he passed away.^ 
290. Character of 
Luther. — Luther did not live to witness the outbreak of the first 
rehgious war. He died peacefuUy in 1546 at Eisleben, the town 
in which he was born. 

' His son Philip II inherited most of his dominions ; but his brother Ferdinand 
I, the ruler of Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary, was elected emperor. 




Martin Luther 
From a modern painting. 



Charles V and the Reformation 333 

Martin Luther was a robust, rugged, powerful personality, a 
man of heroic mold. He fully realized the gravity of his respon- 
sibility. He was not a radical, but rather a conservative, and 
there is no reason to believe that he arrived at a single conclu- 
sion without mature deliberation. 

Though born in the lower classes, Luther was an aristocrat 
at heart rather than a democrat, and his mind was medieval 
rather than modern. The modern idea of individual liberty 
of conscience he never fully grasped, but the broad principles 
on which modern universal education is built are all found in his 
writings. 

Luther was often coarse in his language and manners, but the 
sincerity of his devotion to reform was beyond question. For- 
mer efforts to bring about reform by devout Catholics had failed. 
Luther was convinced that reform within the church was im- 
possible. Nothing was left but to disrupt it, and he was more 
devoted to reform than to a preservation of the organization of 
the Middle Ages. No one can deny that his career had a pro- 
found effect on the history of the world. 

Questions and Topics. — I. Describe the coming of the Turks to 
Europe and the fall of Constantinople. Contrast the status of the 
Turks in Europe four hundred years ago and at present. What can 
you tell of Germany and the Empire? of Charles V? Compare the 
government of the Empire under Charles V with the United States 
government. 

II. Name two or three causes that brought about the Reforma- 
tion. Who were the Lollards? What did John Wyclif do for English 
prose? Give a brief account of John Hus and his teachings. 

III. Tell what you know of Martin Luther as a boy, as a monk, 
as a university professor. What occasioned the posting of the ninety- 
five propositions on the church door? What were Luther's chief writ- 
ings, and what doctrines did he set forth in them? Who was Frederick 
the Wise? Describe the Diet of Worms. 

IV. In what ways were the efforts of Charles V to make war on 
Protestantism frustrated? When and where was the word Protestant 
first applied to the reformers ? What was the result of the first religious 
war? Give an estimate of Luther's character. 



334 The Period of the Reformation 

Events and Dates. — Fall of Constantinople, 1453. Birth of 
Luther, 1483. Reformation begins, 1517. Charles V becomes em- 
peror, 1519. Diet of Worms, 1521. Reformers first called Protes- 
tants, 1529. Peace of Augsburg, 1555. 

For Further Reading. — Seebohm, Era of the Protestant Revolution. 
Kostlin, Life of Luther. Lindsay, A History of the Reformation, 2 vols. 
This is one of the most thorough works on the subject in English. 
Vol. II treats of the Reformation in Switzerland, France, the Nether- 
lands, Scotland, and England. Fisher, The Reformation. Jacobs, 
Martin Luther. Preserved Smith, Life and Letters of Martin Luther. 
From a Catholic viewpoint the Reformation may be studied in Spaul- 
ding, History of the Protestant Reformation. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

THE REFORMATION IN OTHER LANDS; THE COUNTER 
REFORMATION 

I. Switzerland 

291. Ulrich Zwingli, the Swiss Reformer. — During the 
stirring years of the Reformation in Germany there was a similar 
movement going on in the little Alpine country on the south. 
There too people revolted against the church of the Middle Ages, 
and the doctrines they accepted were very like those of Luther 
in Germany. 

The leader of the Swiss revolt was Ulrich Zwingli (ool'riK 
tsving'le), who declared that his ideas of reform were not bor- 
rowed from Luther, but were the result of his own thinking. He 
began his work of reform in Zurich (zoo'rik) in 151 8, the year 
after Luther posted his ninety-five propositions on the church door 
at Wittenberg. He was more radical than the Saxon reformer. 
Luther believed that many of the usages of the church, not con- 
trary to the Scriptures, should be retained ; Zwingh would tear 
down the whole edifice and build a new structure on the ruins. 
Luther would retain the works of art in the churches, to be re- 
garded as ornaments and not as objects of adoration; Zwingli 
would cast out all such ornaments and whitewash the church 
walls in order that all temptation of saint worship and image 
worship might be removed. 

It was hoped that Luther and Zwingli might work together. 
To this end they met in 1529 and discussed their creeds and 
doctrines. In most respects they fully agreed, but not at all 
points, and they parted, like Paul and Barnabas, each going 
his own way. Thus began the divisions of Protestantism. Two 

335 



336 The Period of the Reformation 

years later Zwingli was killed in a batde between Swiss Catho- 
lics and Swiss Protestants ; but his work did not die. By the 
treaty of peace each canton was left free to decide for itself in 
religious matters. 

292. John Calvin. — Next to Luther the greatest of the re- 
formers was John Calvin, a Frenchman, born in 1509. When 
the echoes of the Protestant movement in Germany were heard 
in France Calvin was a youthful student. He readily adopted 
the cause of the reformers, soon became a leader in the move- 
ment, and was forced by persecution to flee from his native land. 
For some years he sojourned in different cities and in the mean- 
time published his great theological work, The Institutes of the 
Christian Religion. 

In 1536 Calvin went to the city of GeneVa and there hence- 
forth were his home and his work. He labored early and late ; 
he lived in a tenement, fasted often, was thinly clad and always 
poor. His salary as pastor at Geneva was small. It included a 
little money, twelve measures of grain, and two tubs of wine. 

For many years Calvin had practical control of the religious 
life and even of the government of Geneva. The rules he laid 
down for the daily observance of the people v/ere extremely 
severe. Many harmless pleasures were forbidden. Extrava- 
gance in dress, dancing, and neglect of church attendance were 
severely dealt with. Unlike the other reformers, Calvin ap- 
proved of putting heretics to death. But with all his faults he 
became a mighty power in the religious world. 

Though Luther was twenty-six years of age when Calvin was 
born, Calvin became famous while Luther still lived. The two 
reformers greatly respected each other, but they never met. 
They were wholly unlike in temperament and talents. Luther 
was purely a churchman with little organizing ability; Calvin 
was a statesman as well as a churchman, with fine powers of 
organization. Luther was eloquent and popular ; Calvin was 
lank and sickly, without eloquence, coldly intellectual and philo- 
sophical. Both were possessed of unbounded energy, were 



Switzerland, England 337 

utterly fearless, and profoundly devoted to duty as they saw it, 
and each to this day has many millions of followers in the Christian 
world. 

II. England and Other Lands 

293. Wars of the Roses and Henry Tudor. — For a hundred 
years after the victory of the Black Prince at Poitiers in 1356 
(sec. 245) there is little in the history of England to interest the 
reader. At the end of. that period came the Wars of the Roses, 
so called because a white rose was worn as a badge by one side 
and a red rose by the other. These wars continued for thirty 
years and ended in 1485 when Richard III fell fighting at the 
battle of Bosworth Field. It was a contest between two great 
baronial families fighting for the crown. They were known as 
the House of Lancaster and the House of York, both descended 
from Edward III, father of the Black Prince (sec. 245). At the 
close of the wars nearly all the ancient nobility of England had 
been swept away. When Richard HI, the last of the Yorks, 
was slain at Bosworth, Henry Tudor, the Earl of Richmond, 
whose mother was a Lancaster, ascended the throne of England 
as Henry VII (1485). Then began the reign of the Tudors, which 
continued for more than a century. Henry VII was a strong 
ruler, and his reign of twenty-four years was a season of peace. 
He is best remembered in America because it was during his reign 
that John Cabot made his famous voyage of discovery to the 
North American continent. 

294. Henry VIII and Cardinal Wolsey. — On the death of 
Henry VII in 1509, his son, a youth of eighteen years, ascended 
the English throne as Henry VIII. The new king was most 
promising. Hale, jovial, and kind-hearted, strong and athletic, 
with auburn hair and ruddy countenance, he was pronounced 
the handsomest prince in Europe. He loved sports and gaudy 
display, and the great fortune left him by his father was soon 
dissipated. 

King Henry at first seemed favorable to the revival of learn- 




I 



Hall of Christchurch College, Oxford 

Founded by Cardinal Wolsey in 1524, and renewed by Henry VIII in 1546. This 
beautiful room, with a ceiling of carved oak, is 115 feet long and 50 feet high. It 
was used by the students as a dining hall. On the walls hang portraits, including 
Wolsey and Henry VIII by Holbein, Queen Elizabeth and other prominent people 
by famous artists. In the gateway of the college hangs the bell called " Great Tom " ; 
every night at five minutes past nine this bell peals a curfew of loi strokes, com- 
memorating the original number of students. College gates all over Oxford are 
closed five minutes later. 



338 



The Reformation in England 339 

ing. It was in his reign that the great Oxford teacher John 
Colet, together with Sir Thomas More, one of tlie most eminent 
men in the kingdom, and Erasmus, who had come over from the 
continent, were laying the foundations for a new era in Enghsh 
education (sec. 270). Henry at first gave countenance to their pro- 
posed reforms; but when the Lutheran movement in Germany 
went far beyond their proposals, he became alarmed and withdrew 
his support and even wrote a book against Luther. For this 
he received from the pope the title of Defender of the Faith. 

For twenty years or more after Henry's accession his reign 
was brilliant. His success was due in a large measure to the skill 
and ability of his great minister. Cardinal Wolsey (wool'zi). 
Born among the lowly, the son of a butcher, Wolsey had shown 
such talent as a student in early manhood that he was taken 
into the service of his sovereign. His rise was rapid until he 
became Chancellor of the kingdom, the highest official beneath 
the throne. Wolsey's estates were vast, his power was kingly. 
Five hundred nobles attended him in his daily rounds. But 
his power was like moonlight ; it was reflected. The king could 
destroy it all in a breath. And so it happened. 

295. The Divorce. — Henry VHI had an elder brother named 
Arthur, who was married to the Spanish princess Catherine, 
daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. A few months after the 
marriage Arthur died and Henry became heir to the crown. In 
order that the connection with so great a house as that of Spain 
be not lost, it was arranged that Henry marry his brother's widow. 
As such a marriage was forbidden by the church, a dispensation 
was obtained from the pope to sanction it. 

For many years King Henry lived happily with Catherine. 
They had several children, all of whom died in early youth ex- 
cept their daughter Mary. At length the king began to have 
misgivings as to the legality of his marriage. He longed for a 
male heir to the throne. Moreover, he fell in love with one 'of 
the court maids, named Anne Bolejm (bool'in). Henry deter- 
mined to secure a divorce from Catherine and to marry Anne. 



340 



The Period of the Reformation 




A Banquet, Sixteenth Century 

From a woodcut published in 1549. The feasters have reached the dessert course 

consisting of sweetmeats, fruits, and wine. The furnishings and table service were 

simple ; one used one's fingers or one's own knife instead of a fork. Bones and scraps 

were thrown to the floor for the dogs. 



In order to have his marriage with Catherine annulled, the 
sanction of the pope was first to be secured. The king intrusted 
the matter to Wolsey. But there were obstacles in the way. 
The emperor Charles V, the most powerful monarch in Europe, 
who was a nephew of Catherine, objected to such an injury to his 



The Reformation in England 341 

family. A trial in England, however, was arranged ; but the 
pope reserved to himself the final decision, and after three years 
had passed nothing was j^et settled. Henry's patience was at 
last exhausted and his wrath fell on Wolsey. The great cardinal 
was degraded from his office, his estates were seized, and he 
was reduced to poverty. Some time later, when about to be 
brought to trial, he died. The famous final words of the fallen 
minister were, " If I had served my God as diligently as I have 
done the king. He would not have given me over in my gray 
hairs." 

296. The Break with Rome. — On the fall of Wolsey two 
equally prominent figures come to the foreground — Thomas 
Cranmer and Thomas Cromwell. Cranmer was soon made the 
archbishop of Canterbury, and he became the largest figure 
in the history of the Church of England. 

Cromwell had been taken into the public service by Wolsey. 
On the fall of that prelate he was promoted rapidly until 
he reached the highest office in the gift of the king. On him 
and Cranmer developed the task of securing the divorce, which 
Wolsey had failed to secure. The advice of Cromwell was finally 
taken, namely, that the pope be ignored and that the matter 
be settled in the English courts. But this grave step involved 
breaking away from the Roman Catholic Church. 

A Parliament, known as the Reformation Parliament, was 
called in 1532 and sat for seven years. In accordance with the 
king's desire it passed an act cutting off the revenues from Eng- 
land to the pope, which often were greater than the income of 
the king. An act was then passed abolishing appeals to Rome 
on all questions of marriage. A church court, with Archbishop 
Cranmer at its head, pronounced Henry's marriage with Catherine 
invalid. 

Meantime the king had secretly married Anne Boleyn, who 
afterwards became the mother of Queen Elizabeth. 

The next year, 1534, at the king's behest. Parliament passed 
the Act of Supremacy. This was a statute of far-reaching im- 



342 The Period of the Reformation 

portance, the supreme act of the English Reformation. By it 
all connection of the English Church with Rome was severed, 
the king was made the head of the church, and from this date 
the Church of England begins as a separate organization. 

Henry had some trouble in forcing the clergy to accept the 
new conditions, but the masses of the people were more indiffer- 
ent and hence more easily led. There were several reasons 
for Henry's success in securing the separation. The general alle- 
giance to the Catholic Church had been shaken in England as 
elsewhere by the Great Schism (sec. 279), by the merciless 
exposition of the abuses in the church by Erasmus and others, 
by the teachings of Wyclif, who had not yet been forgotten, and 
also by the successful revolt in Germany led by Luther. More- 
over, Henry was a powerful ruler, who persecuted or put to death 
those who dared to oppose him. Few indeed could have thus 
led a great nation away from its religious bearings of a thousand 
years. What were his motives? 

Henry VHI was not at heart a reformer nor a Protestant. In 
so far as he was religious at all he was a Catholic to the day of 
his death. We search in vain for any good motive for his action. 
But there were many reasons : He was infatuated with Anne 
Boleyn ; he had a morbid yearning for more power and for a blind 
submission of his people to himself ; he wanted to be pope of 
England as well as king. Furthermore, Henry looked with a 
greedy eye on the great wealth of the monasteries, and he pro- 
ceeded to confiscate their property to the crown. ^ 

But viewed from a purely English standpoint, Henry did an 
important thing for England. He taught the nation that it 
could get along without the pope. The real Reformation came 
after his death. 

297. The English Reformation. — Although Henry VIII was 
merely a rebellious Catholic, there were large numbers of the 

1 It was said that the monasteries, of which there were 645, owned one fifth of 
the wealth of England. This vast wealth, seized by the king, went to the royal 
treasury, to the founding of schools, and to the rewarding of favorites. 



The Reformation in Northern Lands 343 

English people who were ready to become real Protestants, and 
among them was Henry's son and successor, Edward VI. 

Henry VHI left three children, of different mothers — Ed- 
ward, Mary, and Elizabeth — and he made a will bestowing the 
crown on each in turn. If Edward left no heirs it was to pass to 
Mary, and if she left no heirs, to Elizabeth. Parliament sanc- 
tioned this arrangement. 

When Edward VI came to the throne (1547) he was a boy of 
nine years. It was a time of great religious and political tur- 
moil. The management of the kingdom, owing to the minority 
of the king, devolved on a great nobleman, the Duke of Somerset ; 
but after two years he fell from power and the Duke of Nor- 
thumberland succeeded him. Both these men favored the Prot- 
estant cause, and Archbishop Cranmer continued to be the 
religious leader of the nation. In 1 549 he was head of a commis- 
sion that prepared the Book of Common Prayer for use in the 
church service. Three years later he wrote forty-two articles of 
faith. These were later reduced to thirty-nine, and the Thirty- 
Nine Articles are still the distinctive creed of the Church of 
England. 

298. Reformation in Northern Lands. — In Scotland the Ref- 
ormation came a little later than in England and it was more 
complete. The great leader there was John Knox, who returned 
to Scotland after spending some years at Geneva in close asso- 
ciation with Calvin. Knox was a born leader ; he was impres- 
sive in appearance, tall and athletic, eloquent, and wore a flow- 
ing patriarchal beard. 

Scotland adopted the teachings of Calvin more fully than any 
other country. It became the stronghold of the Presbyterian 
Church and so it remains to this day. ' At the death of Knox 
in 1572 the country was almost unanimously Protestant, though 
the sovereign had remained Catholic. 

Even before the Reformation had been effected in England the 
Lutheran wave had swept over the Scandinavian countries. Den- 
mark, Norway, and Sweden, together with Finland and Esthonia, 



344 The Period of the Reformation 

became and still remain the most exclusively Lutheran countries 
in the world. 

Holland also joined in the Reformation movement, accept- 
ing for the most part the doctrines of Zwingli. 



III. The Counter Reformation 

299. Beginning of the Reaction. — For nearly half a century 
after Luther posted his propositions on the church door at Witten- 
berg, the great Catholic Church suffered losses on all sides without 
making much effective resistance. This fact was due largely to the 
inefficiency and worldliness of the popes of the period ; also to a 
widespread indifference of the people caused by the glaring abuses 
in the church, as well as to the ability and energy of the reformers. 

But a time of reaction came. The Catholic Church began to 
realize the great extent of the Reformation movement ; it roused 
itself to action, it put an end to wholesale conversions, and even 
won back a few sections that had been lost. This was made 
easier by the fact that the Protestants were divided among them- 
selves and could not act in harmony. 

The various means by which the Counter Reformation was 
brought about were, first, the election of better popes ; second, 
the founding of the Society of Jesus by Loyo'la ; third, the Coun- 
cil of Trent ; fourth, the Inquisition ; and fifth, the Index. These 
require some explanation. 

300. Ignatius Loyola and the Jesuits. — Loyola was a Span- 
ish soldier, a chivalric knight. Being severely wounded, he lay 
for several months on a sickbed in a castle. Having asked for 
books he was handed the Lives of the Saints. As he read he 
became imbued with an intense religious fervor. On his recovery 
he discarded his armor, put on the sackcloth of a beggar, and 
retired to a cave. Later he made a pilgrimage to Palestine and 
on his return took courses of study in Spain and at Paris. In 
1534 he founded the famous Society of Jesus, Imown as the 
Jesuits (jez'u-its). 




Following 344 



The Counter Reformation 



345 



The Jesuit Society grew with great rapidity and soon became a 
power in the Cathohc Church. Each member was obhged to 
surrender his will to the will of the order, and to take the triple 
vow of poverty, chastity, and obedience. To strengthen the 
church the Jesuits founded many schools and seminaries in many 
lands. They braved all perils in their missionary zeal in many 
parts of the world. 
They influenced kings 
and rulers and did 
everything in their 
power to bring back 
straying members to 
the Roman Catholic 
Church. 

Associated with 
Loyola in founding the 
new order was Francis 
Xavier (zav'i-er), a 
native of Spain. In 
1542 Xavier started on 
a wonderful missionarj^ 
tour in the East Indian 
Islands. For many 
years he labored in 
season and out of sea- 
son. He organized 
many churches and 
baptized thousands of converts. The Jesuits sent missionaries 
also to the wilds of America to preach to the Indians. The 
self-denying labors of Father Marquette and others are well 
known. 

301. Other Means of the Counter Reformation. — The In- 
quisition (sec. 254) was restored, especially in Spain and the Nether- 
lands, In Spain the motto was " One people, one faith." Jews 
and Moors had been put to death in great numbers for religious 

EL. M. T. — 23 




Ignatius Loyola 
After a painting by Rubens. 



346 The Period of the Reformation 

and other reasons. When Protestantism dared to lift its head in 
Spain, the same methods were applied, and it was crushed. 

The Council of Trent was called by the pope for the purpose 
of fixing the standards of belief for the Roman Catholic Church. 
It sat at intervals for many years, closing its work in 1563. Its 
decrees defined the Catholic belief, as the Confession of Augs- 
burg set forth the Lutheran doctrine and the Thirty- Nine Ar- 
ticles those of the English Church. The Council of Trent con- 
demned every article of purely Protestant faith and closed the 
last possible avenue of reconciliation. It also made important 
reforms in the government and discipline of the clergy. 

By the Index is meant a list of prohibited books which Catholic 
people were forbidden to read. The practice of prohibiting cer- 
tain books still continues, and while it has had largely its intended 
effect, it has also deprived many Catholics of the benefits of some 
of the greatest works in culture and science. 

From the above-mentioned causes and from the fact that 
there was a genuine reform in the Catholic Church, in both " head 
and members," a reaction from the sweep of Protestantism was 
effected. A few minor countries in which the Protestants had 
made much progress were reclaimed to the Catholic Church. 
These were Poland, Bavaria, and the greater part of Hungary. 

302. A View of the Catholic and Protestant Faiths. — Since 
the century that brought the Protestant Reformation, no great 
changes have taken place in the religious faith of any European 
country. Since 1600 there have been no wholesale conversions 
to or from either side. 

It will be noted that it was the Teutonic north, which had re- 
sisted the Roman Empire, that broke away from the Catholic 
Church, while southern Europe retained the old faith. But 
in these days of religious toleration there are many Catholics 
in Protestant countries, and many Protestants in Catholic coun- 
tries. In Germany, England, and the United States there is a 
mixture, but the Protestants greatly predominate. The coun- 
tries of southwestern Europe and South America are almost 



The Catholic and Protestant Faiths 347 

wholly Roman Catholic, while the three Scandinavian countries 
are almost unanimously Lutheran and Scotland is almost unani- 
mously Presbyterian. 

The Roman Catholics of the world are united in one vast 
religious body, the supreme head of which is the pope at Rome. 

The Protestants, on the contrary, are divided into many in- 
dependent sects or denominations, differing from one another 
in minor matters of belief or government. Some deplore the 
divisions among Protestants, but others believe that the condi- 
tion is better than if they were united, because the friendly ri- 
valry proves a stimulant to activity and higher life, and any one 
may find a church suited to his temperament. 

303. Points of Difference. — As regards the great vital ques- 
tions of Christianity Catholics and nearly all Protestants stand 
on the same ground. Both believe in the Fatherhood of God and 
the Sonship of Christ. Both believe in the Trinity, in the atone- 
ment of Christ, and in the founding of the Church for the sal- 
vation of men and the guidance of their lives. 

There are three and only three points of difference between 
the Protestant and Catholic faiths that may be deemed funda- 
mental. First, the Protestants recognize one and only one 
source of faith — the Bible. Catholics recognize three sources 
— the Bible, tradition, and decrees of popes and councils. 
Second, Protestants believe in justification by faith alone ; they 
believe that salvation is a gift of divine grace, and that man 
has no power to earn it. Catholics believe that good works 
as well as faith are necessary to salvation. Third, Protestants 
believe in the right of private judgment, that is, that the indi- 
vidual stands alone before his God and must judge for himself 
what is right and true. Catholics regard the church as the medi- 
ator between God and man. The individual has no right to 
private judgment or interpretation of the Scriptures. He must 
accept what the church teaches. 

To one or more of these three fundamentals all differences be- 
tween the two faiths may be traced. 



348 The Period of the Reformation 

304. General View of the Reformation. — The Protestant 
Reformation divided western Christendom almost in the middle 
and so it has remained from that time to the present. The at- 
titude of Cathohcs and Protestants toward one another has been 
greatly softened since the strenuous days of the Reformation. 
They have learned to live in friendly relations with one another, 
each going his own way and letting the other alone in matters of 
religion. The divisions of Protestantism arise from the funda- 
mental principle of the right of private judgment. 

That the leading reformers were men of great sincerity of pur- 
pose and commanding ability cannot be doubted. But it must 
be added that many of the princes in Germany, as well as the 
English king, were influenced in part by a desire to lay hands on 
the rich monasteries and to get possession of their treasures. 
They desired also to get complete control over the courts and 
over taxation in their respective dominions. It can be seen, 
therefore, that the great changes brought about by the Refor- 
mation were political as well as religious. 

Side Talk 

The Story of Parkin Warbeck. — That an unknown, beardless 
youth of twenty, by laying claim to the English crown, could win 
great numbers to his cause, could make the English monarch tremble 
for his throne, would be the cause of the execution of great nobles and 
the death of hundreds of other men, and would keep all Europe agog 
for six years, seems beyond belief. 

When Richard III became the king of England in 1483 he was con- 
fronted with the fact that his deceased brother, King Edward IV, had 
left two little sons. The elder, named Richard, a boy of eight years, was 
the Duke of York and heir to the crown. The children were thrown into 
the Tower of London (see page 275), and here it was believed King 
Richard had them murdered. Two years later (1485) King Richard 
was slain at the battle of Bosworth and Henry VII became king. Now 
we are ready for the story. 

One day early in the year 1492 a merchant vessel from Lisbon cast 
anchor in the harbor of Cork, Ireland, and among the passengers was 
a young man aged about twenty, handsome and courtly in bearing. 
No one knew him. A writer of the time tells us that " he had such a 



Questions and Topics 349 

crafty and bewitching fashion, both to move pity and to induce belief, 
as was like a kind of fascination or enchantment to those that saw 
him or heard him." 

It soon became rumored that the young man was Richard, the 
Duke of York. Whether he deftly started the report, or merely as- 
sumed the character after the people had suggested it, is not clear. At 
least, he assumed the character and a crowd gathered to do him honor. 

The mayor and people of Cork believed the young man's story. In 
fact a large number of people accepted it and offered their services in 
his behalf. The king of France sent an embassy to invite the youth to 
Paris. Thither he went and was received with royal honors. By this 
time the English king was thoroughly alarmed. He had been about 
to declare war on France, but he now hastened to offer to make a treaty 
of peace on the condition that the French king expel the pretender 
from his country. The boy then fled to Margaret, the Duchess of 
Burgundy, an aunt of the true Duke of York. He declared that he 
had escaped from the London prison seven years before, and that he 
had lived in hiding since then. Margaret believed his story and re- 
ceived him as her nephew. Later he went to Scotland, and the Scottish 
king espoused his cause and helped him to raise an army with which to 
invade England. 

Meantime the English king had employed experts to ferret out the 
history and pedigree of the youth. The experts professed to discover 
that he was the son of poor parents of Tournai (toor-ne') in the Nether- 
lands, and that his name was Perkin Warbeck. But the king knew 
that thousands of his people believed the boy to be the true Duke of 
York and that his throne was in some danger. He sent an army against 
the invaders from Scotland. He was successful, and Warbeck was cap- 
tured. After making his escape, the boy was recaptured and put to 
death. To this day it is not absolutely known whether the lad was a 
false pretender or the real Duke of York. 

Questions and Topics. — I. Who was the leading Swiss reformer? 
What was the object of his meeting with Luther? Give the life story 
of John Calvin. How can you contrast his character with that of 
Luther? 

II. What can you tell of the Wars of the Roses ? of Henry VII ? 
of the early part of the reign of Henry VIII? What seem to have 
been, the motives of Henry VIII in breaking away from the Roman 
Catholic Church? When and in whose reign did England become 
really Protestant? What are the Thirty-Nine Articles? Who was 
Archbishop Cranmer? 



350 The Period of the Reformation 

III. Why did the Roman Catholic Church do so little to check the 
Reformation movement at first? What can you tell of the life and 
work of Loyola? of Francis Xavier? What other means were employed 
in the Counter Reformation? What was the cause of the Catholic 
Counter Reformation? How are the countries of Europe divided 
between the Catholic and Protestant faiths? On what vital ques- 
tions are Catholics and Protestants in agreement? What are their 
fundamental points of difference? What is the cause of the divisions 
of Protestantism? 

Events and Dates. — Zwingli begins Reformation in Switzerland, 
1518. Birth of Calvin, 1509. Henry VIII becomes king of England, 
1509. The English Church breaks with Rome, 1534. Loyola founds 
Jesuit Society, 1534. 

For Further Reading. — Most of the books mentioned under the 
last chapter will answer for this one also. To these, biographies of 
Zwingli, Calvin, and Loyola should be added. 



CHAPTER XXV 
THE ENGLAND OF ELIZABETH'S TIME 

I. The Reign of Queen Mary 

305. Lady Jane Grey. — There is no more pathetic story in 
the history of England than that of Lady Jane Grey, the " Nine 
Days' Queen." 

Edward VI (sec. 297), the boy king of England, did not live to 
reach manhood. He died at the age of fifteen. The Duke of 
Northumberland, who had been governor of the realm under the 
young king, was a man of unbounded and selfish ambition. 
When he saw that the young king was about to die he devised a 
bold plan to retain the governing power within his own hands. 
He determined to set aside Mary, the eldest daughter of Henry 
VHI, and place Lady Jane Grey on the throne. Lady Jane, 
who was also in the royal line as a descendant of Henry VH, 
was a daughter-in-law of Northumberland. She was but a girl 
of sixteen, lovely in appearance and in character, fond of books, a 
delight to her companions. When Lady Jane was informed that 
she was to be queen of England her answer was beyond her years. 
She spoke of the rights of Mary and Elizabeth, declaring that 
she herself had no right to the crown. She said that it was 
mocking God to scruple at stealing a shilling and not at stealing 
a crown. But her will at last was broken and she yielded to her 
elders. 

The people of England, however, did not approve, for two chief 
reasons : first, their sense of Justice told them that Mary was the 
true heir to the crown and should have it ; second, they despised 
the haughty Northumberland and would have him rule over them 
no longer. Lady Jane had no enemies, but the people refused 

&5^ 



352 The Period of the Reformation 

to make her their queen ; they gave their shouts to Mary, and 
Northumberland's power mehed away. 

306. The Reign of Mary. — At the age of thirty-six Mary 
Tudor ascended the throne of England (1553). Her life had been 
one of humiliation and disappointment ; now her prospects for 
a brilliant career were most flattering. But it was not long before 
she began to awaken the criticism and later the hatred of her 
people. Northumberland was tried for treason and put to 
death, and few there were to mourn him; but when the inno- 
cent, lovable Lady Jane Grey was condemned to the same fate, 
the people wailed and they never fully forgave the woman who 
caused it. 

Queen Mary, like her mother Catherine, was a Catholic. When 
her mother suffered the humiliation of a divorce from Henry VHI 
(sees. 295, 296), the Catholic Church had stood by her to the last. 
Now Mary's hope was to bring England back to its former rehgious 
allegiance ; but she made a serious mistake in using force for this 
purpose. 

The greatest misstep that the new queen made was in marrying 
Philip n, son of Emperor Charles V, and soon to become king 
of Spain. Her chief object was to enlist the aid of Spain in 
leading England back to the Catholic fold. This the people 
resented deeply. They hated Spain and feared that England 
would be made a mere adjunct to that country. 

Again, Mary made herself extremely unpopular by her persecu- 
tions for heresy. It is true that the age was an age of persecu- 
tion, and that Protestant rulers as well as Catholics were intolerant ; 
but in England under Mary there were more executions for heresy 
than during any other reign. Among the victims burned at the 
stake in her reign was Archbishop Cranmer, the highest church 
dignitary in England. 

Queen Mary's career was pitiable. All her hopes were dis- 
appointed. She loved her husband Philip, but he cared nothing 
for her. Her efforts to make England Catholic made it more 
Protestant. In a war with France she lost Calais, the last 



J 



England under Queen Elizabeth 353 

English possession on the Continent. She knew that her people 
hated her and wished for her death. Finally, the crown of her 
misfortunes came when she learned that she would have no 
children and that she would soon die from an incurable disease. 
On November 17, 1558, the tragic, lonely, joyless life of Queen 
Mary was ended. 



II. The Reign of Elizabeth (i 558-1603) 

307. The Virgin Queen. — At the age of twenty-five Elizabeth 
began her long reign of forty-five years. When informed that 
her half-sister had passed away and that she was to be queen, she 
exclaimed, " This is the Lord's doings and it is marvelous in our 
eyes." She remained unmarried to the end of her life and was 
called the Virgin Queen. From this fact the first of the permanent 
English colonies in North America was named Virginia. 

The young queen was tall and graceful in her bearing ; her 
eyes were hazel and penetrating and she had a wealth of auburn 
hair. As a woman she was jovial and full of girlish gayety, 
fond of dress and of jewelry, frivolous and sometimes coarse 
in her language. She loved the banquet and the dance, and also 
the more virile sports of hawking and the chase. 

As a sovereign Elizabeth was thoughtful, industrious, far- 
sighted. Around her council board sat men of wide experience 
in statesmanship ; she listened to thefr counsel and made her own 
decisions. She was one of the greatest statesmen in her time, 
and during her long reign she was the real governing force in 
England. Her chief adviser for forty years was Lord Burghley 
(bur'li), an ancestor of the late Marquis of Salisbury (s61z'ber-i), 
who was British prime minister during part of the reign of Queen 
Victoria. 

308. Elizabeth and the Church. — The most vital of the ques- 
tions to be settled in the early part of Elizabeth's reign was that 
of the church. Her father, Henry VIII, had broken away from 
Rome ; Edward VI had swung the nation far to the Protestant 



354 



The Period of the Reformation 



side, and Mary had attempted to bring it back to the CathoUc 
fold. The religion of the people swayed to and fro with the 
caprice of the sovereign and the ever-changing politics. What 
will the new queen do in settling the religious question ? 




Queen Elizabeth 

This portrait was presented by the Queen to Sir Henry Sidney, who served as lord 
deputy of Ireland in her reign. 

As Mary was a Cathohc by inheritance, Elizabeth was a Prot- 
estant for the same reason. But Elizabeth was very wise and 
prudent. She took a middle course. Had she at first pro- 
nounced radically for either side, she would have alienated the 
other and endangered her crown. 

In fact, the queen had no very deep religious convictions ; 
she hated controversy and she disliked the extremes of both 



England under Queen Elizabeth 355 

sides. So tactful was she that when Phihp of Spain asked for 
her hand in marriage, she put him off several years until she felt 
secure on her throne, before she answered with a positive No. 
Even the pope was deceived by the wily queen. She permitted 
him to beheve that she might be reclaimed some time, and so dex- 
terously did she evade committing herself finally on the religious 
question that twelve years passed before the papal patience was 
exhausted and she was excommunicated. During the twelve years 
she had so completely won the love of her people that nothing 
could disturb the crown she wore. 

It was in Elizabeth's reign that the doctrines and worship of 
the Church of England were given their final form. They are 
the doctrines and worship known in America as those of the 
Episcopal Church. Parliament then passed acts compelling all 
English subjects to conform to the English Church, and during 
Elizabeth's long reign a number of Catholics were put to death for 
refusing to do so. 

During the reign of Elizabeth the subjugation of Ireland, begun 
under Henry VIII, was completed with much cruelty. Great 
sections of the island were given to English landlords. This ac- 
counts in part for the fact that the Irish refused to accept the 
Protestant faith and remained true to the Catholic Church. 

309. Mary Queen of Scots. — The person who gave Elizabeth 
more trouble than any one else in the world was her cousin, 
whom she never saw — Mary Queen of Scots. Mary, a descend- 
ant of Henry VII, was the idol of the Catholic party, a claimant 
of the English throne on the ground that Elizabeth, the daughter 
of Anne Boleyn (sec. 296), was illegitimate and had no right to it. 

Mary is an important historic character. Born to the Scottish 
throne, she was crowned queen of Scotland before she was a 
year old, and at the age of fifteen she was married to the young 
king of France, Francis II. But Francis died the next year 
(1560) and Mary was a widow in her girlhood, at the age of seven- 
teen. She then returned to her own land and became the reigning 
queen of Scotland. The Scots had become Protestant, but 



356 The Period of the Reformation 

Mary remained a Catholic and each agreed not to molest the 
other in religion. 

Some time later Mary married her cousin Henry Stuart, Lord 
Darnley, and was the mother of a prince who was destined to be- 
come king of England as James I, the successor of Elizabeth. 

But Mary and her husband did not get on well together. He 
was murdered ; and her people, believing she had a hand in the 
foul crime, rose in rebellion against her. She fled into England 
and became a prisoner of her rival, Elizabeth. In various castles 
she was detained for many a long year. Like a caged wild bird 
striving in vain for the freedom of the sky, the fallen queen fretted 
away her beauty and her life in her endless longing for liberty. 

At last a widespread plot to dethrone Elizabeth and place 
Mary on the English throne was discovered, and Mary was 
accused of being one of the conspirators. She was put on trial 
for her life, convicted, and sentenced to die. Elizabeth hesitated 
long before signing the death warrant, but at last did so, and the 
queen without a crown was executed, after nineteen years as 
a prisoner in England (1587). 

310. The Spanish Armada (1588). — Seldom has England 
in all her history done so great a thing as when she defeated the 
Spanish Armada (ar-ma'da). Spain at this moment was the 
greatest power in Europe, and Philip H was king of Spain. Philip 
regarded himself as the world's greatest champion of Catholicism, 
and the hope of his life was that he might be the instrument in 
bringing the Protestant countries back to the Catholic Church. 
He had married Queen Mary of England with this end in view, 
but that project had failed, and now, after the death of Mary 
Queen of Scots, he raked up a shadowy claim that his own daughter 
by an earlier marriage, being a descendant of a former English 
king, was the true heir to the English throne. On this pretext 
Philip determined to subdue the island kingdom, and he gathered 
a great Armada, or fleet of warships. Men of every class from 
the noble to the common sailor joined the expedition ; but its 
commander was a man of little skill and little experience. 




Defeat of the Spanish Armada 



England under Queen Elizabeth 357 

One day in July, 1588, this mighty fleet, the greatest ever yet 
seen in European waters, 132 ships bearing 32,000 men, was 
sighted in a grand crescent several miles in extent, approaching 
the coast of Cornwall, the southwest county of England. There 
was great excitement throughout the land, and the English rose 
to the occasion. Catholic and Protestant alike. A writer of the 
time says, " All her whole realm, and every corner, was furnished 
with armed men, on horseback and on foot." 

But there was no need of an army, for not a Spanish soldier 
was permitted to land. The English fleet was commanded by 
that famous triumvirate of " sea dogs," Lord Howard, Sir Francis 
Drake, and Sir Martin Frob'isher. They stood out to sea and 
attacked the enemy, destroying many of his vessels.^ Fighting 
continued for a week. The remaining Spanish vessels fled up the 
Channel and later tried to reach Spain by sailing around Scotland. 
But here they encountered terrific gales and many of them were 
wrecked and went to the bottom of the sea. The project of 
conquering England ended in utter failure. 

The defeat of the Spanish Armada marks an important point in 
history. It brought to an end the greatness of Spain as a sea 
power, and from it dates the beginning of England's supremacy on 
the sea. It has also been pronounced the opening event in Amer- 
ican history. Spain had claimed all of North America as well 
as South America, and every English ship in American waters 
was subject to capture by Spanish men-of-war ; but with the de- 
feat of the Armada Spain was so crippled on the sea that she 
could no longer guard the coast, and England soon began to plant 
her colonies in the western world. 

311. Life and Society in the Time of Elizabeth. — In no other 
respect do the English differ so widely from us Americans as in 

^ The galleons which formed the Spanish Armada, pictured on the opposite page, 
were elegant in appearance and beautifully decorated, and they stood high out of 
the water. The English fleet was made up of smaller ships, no larger than a pres- 
ent-day yacht, but they were swifter, and offered a smaller target for the enemy's 
guns. There were nearly twice as many ships in the Armada as in the Enghsh 
fleet, but the latter were better armed, and fired four shots to one by the Spanish. 



358 The Period of the Reformation 

the caste system, from which we are happily free in this country. 
The EngUsh, hke the people in many other countries, are divided 
into castes or classes of different ranks, as the nobility and the 
common people. Those born in the upper class have privileges 
which the common people have not. To an American it seems 
very strange and very absurd that a great statesman like Glad- 
stone or a great poet like Browning should take second place on 
state occasions to some noble who might be devoid of brains and 
character, or to a ten-year-old boy who happened to be born a 
duke.i 

In the days of Elizabeth there was much distress among the 
farmers, and it was due chiefly to the caste system. Great tracts 
of land were owned by the nobility. On these estates lived in 
little huts large numbers of small farmers who paid rent to the 
landlords. But when the price of wool rose, many landlords 
decided to evict their tenants, turn their lands into pasture, and 
raise sheep. Thousands of country homes, and even whole 
villages, were torn down for this reason. The farmers were 
obliged to move ; but they had nowhere to go. Many of them 
starved ; others became thieves and vagabonds. 

Parliament came to the rescue and passed a law forbidding 
anyone to keep more than a certain number of sheep, and requiring 
that a certain percentage of the land be tilled. This law and a 
fall in the price of wool brought relief and better conditions to the 
farmers. 

Next above the small farmer was the great middle class — 
merchants, traders, manufacturers — who were rapidly growing 
rich. The Dutch had been far in advance of the English in 
weaving good cloth ; but, driven by religious persecution, many 
of them crossed the Channel and settled in England. They 
taught the English how to make the best textiles, and aided in 
laying the foundations of England's industrial greatness. 

1 The people of England, however, have taken over the reins of government 
and have made it a truly democratic country. The caste system is social, not 
political. 



England under Queen Elizabeth 359 

The highest class of society, just below the throne, was the 
nobility, divided into various grades. Many of the nobles held 
office and were industrious, but the majority spent their time in 
games and riding and hunting. _ Many were very rich and kept 
troops of horses and packs of hounds, while trains of servants 
waited at their beck and call, and multitudes of tenants tilled 
their broad acres. A class attached to the nobles, but of no 
particular occupation, were known as " gentlemen." 

312. The Elizabethan Age of Literature. — The age of Eliza- 
beth was an age of very great importance in the development of 
England. As a sea power the nation stepped to the front and has 
remained there ever since. Great industrial achievement and 
advance in agriculture marked the reign. But the most notable 
single feature that characterized the period was the wonderful 
outburst of literature. 

No other age compares with this in its literary product. The 
leading figures were Ben Jonson, Edmund Spenser, and especially 
William Shakespeare. It is agreed by most critics that 
Shakespeare (1564-16 16) was the greatest literary genius in the 
history of the world. Bom of poor parents at Stratford-on-Avon 
in central England, he went to London as a young man, without 
a higher education, to seek his fortune. He attached himself to 
the theater and after serving some years in inferior positions, he 
began the writing of dramas. His works were not collected and 
printed in book form until after his death. 

Shakespeare is justly admired as the supreme poet of the hu- 
man race. His marvelous power of expression is a source of con- 
tinuous astonishment to the reader. He saw deeper into the 
human heart than any other man that ever lived. Among the 
scores of characters that march before us on the Shakespearean 
stage no two are alike ; each represents his class and is a perfect 
type, whether a hero or a villain, a king or a servant, or merely 
an average man or woman. " No king could be more kingly," 
says one writer, " than those of his creation; no maiden knows 
more of woman's love than he knew." The loftiest heights of 




An Elizabethan Theater — Restoration 

The courtyards of London inns often served as playhouses before regular theaters 
were built. These inn yards furnished many suggestions for the early theaters, as 
the picture shows. The stage was in one end, and the open space in front served 
as the pit. The galleries around the sides afforded additional space for spectators. 
The plays were given in the afternoon, as artificial lighting was impossible. The 
occupants of the pit had the sky for roof, and had often to seek shelter from storm. 
There was almost total lack of scenery. For example, a painted sign alone indicated 
Prospero's Island in Shakespeare's Tempest. The audience welcomed complicated 
plots and long monologues if these presented ideas of worth. The theater took the 
place of lectures, newspapers, and magazines. The plays of Ben Jonson and Shake- 
speare were first given under such conditions. 



360 



England under Queen Elizabeth 361 

imagination and the profoundest depths of human thought were 
comprehended within the grasp of his wonderful mind. 

Thomas Carlyle says of Shakespeare, " Here is an English king 
whom no time nor chance, parliament, or combination of parlia- 
ments can dethrone. The latest generations of men will find new 
meanings in Shakespeare, new elucidations of their own human 
being." 

Side Talk 

Queen Elizabeth and the Earl of Essex. — Though Queen Elizabeth 
never married she had several favorites among her subjects. One of 
these was the young Earl of Essex, whom she loved as a mother loves 
a son. The earl was an accomplished youth, handsome, generous, and 
impulsive. The queen, nearly forty years his senior, admitted him to 
the inner circle of her friends and showered him with favors, though 
he often annoyed and vexed her with his thoughtless behavior. He 
spent his time in the royal palaces or lighting the enemies of the country 
on the Spanish seas. When he went off on an expedition the queen 
would charge his superior officers to keep him out of danger. In spite 
of this he rushed into the battle at every opportunity and won fame as 
a reckless and daring fighter. 

One day the queen gave the earl a ring and said that if ever he should 
fall out of her favor he should send her the ring as a reminder of her 
friendship for him, and she assured him that it would secure a pardon. 

As years passed the earl often offended the queen with his insubor- 
dination. On one occasion she angrily boxed his ears and he fled from 
the palace in a rage. Later he was again in favor and was made gov- 
ernor of Ireland. Not being very successful, he fell into disfavor and 
was cast into prison. On gaining his liberty the earl engaged in a plot 
to overthrow the queen and get possession of London. He was arrested 
by Elizabeth's soldiers, was put on trial for treason, and was condemned 
to death. As he lay in prison awaiting the fatal day he became very 
penitent and sorrowful. Then he remembered the promise that the 
queen had made when she gave him the ring and he determined to send 
it to her and implore her pardon. He gave it to the Countess of Notting- 
ham and asked her to hand it to the queen and remind her of her promise 
of years ago. This she would have done, but her husband, an enemy of 
the Earl of Essex, prevented her. 

Meantime Elizabeth was in despair. She still loved the earl and 
wondered why he did not send her the ring and beg for mercy. After 
EL. M. T. — 24 



362 The Period of the Reformation 

many agonizing days and in the belief that the earl was too stiff-necked 
to ask her pardon, she signed the death warrant and the earl was put 
to death. Never was Elizabeth herself again. At every mention of 
the earl she would burst into tears. She would walk the floor for hours 
at a time wringing her hands. Then came the blow from which she 
could not recover. The Countess of Nottingham was on her death- 
bed. She sent for the queen with the message that something weighed 
on her mind that she must tell. As the queen entered the sick chamber 
the countess handed her the ring and told the story related above. 
The queen was enraged beyond measure. She said to the dying woman, 
" God may forgive you if he pleases ; I never will," and left the room. 
Elizabeth died the next year and it was believed that her death was 
hastened by the tragedy of the Earl of Essex. 

Questions and Topics. — I. Relate the story of Lady Jane Grey. 
Why did the Duke of Northumberland attempt to make her queen? 
Why did Queen Mary gradually lose the allegiance of her people ? Who 
was Philip II ? 

II. Describe Elizabeth as a woman ; as a statesman. What were 
her relations to the pope? Had Mary Queen of Scots a right to the 
English throne? Why did Philip II wish to subdue England? Relate 
the story of the Armada. Write an essay on the caste system. What 
can you say of the peasant class? the middle class? Have you read 
any of the poems of Spenser? Jonson? What dramas of Shakespeare 
have you read? 

Events and Dates. — Mary, Queen of England, 1553-1558. Reign 
of Elizabeth, 1558-1603. Defeat of the Spanish Armada, 1588. Shake- 
speare, 1564-1616. 

For Fixrther Reading. — The short histories of England by Green, Ran- 
some, Gardiner, Andrews, and Cross. Creighton, Age of Elizabeth. Beesly, 
Queen Elizabeth. . Lee, Source Book of English History. Robinson, Readings 
in European History, II. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

THE RELIGIOUS WARS 

I. The Huguenot Wars in France 

313. Cause of the Religious Wars. — The Protestant Reforma- 
tion, as we have noticed, divided western Europe into two hostile 
religious sections, hostile because the intolerant spirit of the 
Middle Ages was a long time in giving way to the liberal spirit 
of modern times. It required more than a hundred years for 
this change to come about, and the period was full of strife and 
bloodshed. 

In Italy and Spain Protestantism was nipped in the bud by the 
Inquisition and the Counter Reformation. In the Scandinavian 
countries and in England and Scotland the Reformation was so 
sweeping that the remaining Catholics were too few to raise a 
hand against the majority. These countries therefore were com- 
paratively free from the disastrous religious wars. It is in the 
countries of mixed religious population that we find the long-con- 
tinued fratricidal strife. These were France, the Netherlands, 
and Germany. 

The three most notable religious struggles, all of which were 
partly pohtical, were, (i) the Huguenot (hii'ge-not) Wars in 
France, (2) the revolt of the Netherlands, and (3) the Thirty 
Years' War in Germany. 

314. The Huguenots and the Massacre of St. Bartholomew. — 
Beginning with 1562 eight civil wars were recorded in France 
in the period of thirty-six years. It is needless to notice them 
separately. The Protestants of France were called Huguenots. 
They numbered perhaps 400,000. Their leaders were the Prince 
of Conde (koN-da') and the great French admiral, Coligny 
(ko-len'ye). On the Catholic side the leaders were the Duke of 

363 



364 The Period of the Reformation 

Guise (gii-ez') and Catherine de Medici (med'e-che), who was 
the motlier of three French Icings. The first of these three, 
Francis II, was the husband of Mary Queen of Scots (sec. 309). 
The second of tlie brothers, Charles IX, was but nine years of 
age when he came to the throne, and but eleven when the first 
civil war began. 

One day in 1562 as the Cathohc Duke of Guise was passing 
through the country near Vassy (va-se') with a band of armed men, 
he came upon a large congregation of Huguenots assembled in a 
barn for worship. He attacked them and in the fight sixty 
people were killed and two hundred wounded. The Huguenots 
rose all over France and a fierce war was the result, — the first 
of the religious wars. At length a peace was patched up, but 
the war broke out again and still again. 

The fourth of these conflicts was begun in Paris ^ by the dreadful 
massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572). Catherine, the queen 
mother, who thirsted for power above all things, saw with dismay 
that her son, Charles IX, no longer looked to her for advice but 
had made the Huguenot leader Coligny his chief adviser. She 
plotted to murder the great admiral and secured an assassin to 
shoot him. Coligny was wounded, but not killed. This wicked 
woman then, in fear of being discovered, worked upon the weak 
mind of her son the king. She led him to believe that the Prot- 
estants were about to rise against the Catholics. After much 
persuasion he consented to her plot to massacre the Huguenots, 
and the night before St. Bartholomew's Day the bloody work was 
attempted. The wounded Coligny himself was one of the first 
victims. The assassins broke into the Huguenot homes and slew 

1 The view of Paris on the opposite page shows part of the island In the Seine 
River on which was located the original Gallic town. The section at the right 
was the Latin Quarter, so called as it was, the seat of the University of Paris (sec. 
264). The city was surrounded by walls (i,i). The island was connected with the 
city by bridges, two of which were hned with dwelling houses ; the third bridge (2) 
the Pont Neuf, was built by Henry IV (sec. 315)- Near the lower end of 
the island was the great prison (3) with its pointed towers. The cathedral of Notre 
Dame (4) was completed in the thirteenth century. 




Portion of Old Paris 



36s 



366 The Period of the Reformation 

the people in their beds. On this fateful night at least 2000 
perished in Paris and about 8000 during the next few days in 
other parts of the country. 

315. King Henry of Navarre and the Edict of Nantes. — In 

1589, during the last of the eight civil wars, Catherine's third 
son died and Henry IV — descended from a younger son of 
Saint Louis (sec. 244) — inherited the French throne. He was 
known as Henry of Navarre,^ and was the first of the Bourbon 
(boor'bun) - line of kings. 

■ Henry IV was a Protestant, and he had to fight for several 
years for his throne. Having gained it, and feeling that it would 
be better if he and his people were of the same religion, he became 
a Catholic, at least nine tenths of his people being of that faith. 
But King Henry did not forget his old associates, the Huguenots. 
In 1598 he issued from the city of Nantes (nants) a document 
famous in French history, — the Edict of Nantes. By this edict 
the king granted the Protestants the right to worship in their 
own way, also full civil rights and the right to hold ofhce. He 
also gave them independent political rights such as no country 
at this day grants any religious body. The Edict of Nantes was 
in force more than eighty years. 

316. Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642). — The greatest French 
statesman between Charlemagne arid Napoleon Bonaparte was 
Richelieu (re-she-lyu'). 

Henry of Navarre, after a brilliant reign, was assassinated in 
1610 and for some years thereafter the country was in a state 
of disorder. Then came Richelieu. The king, Louis XIII, was 
weak in everything except his ability to select the ablest man 
in his kingdom as minister of state. Richelieu came into full 

1 One of Macaulay's most stirring war ballads makes this king its subject. It 
commemorates the battle of Ivry (ev-re'), fought in 1590. It begins thus : 

"Now glory to the Lord of Hosts from whom all glories are, 
And glory to our sovereign liege, King Henry of Navarre." 

2 The family was called Bourbon from their ancient domain of that name, lo- 
cated in Central France. The former kingdom of Navarre, now parts of France 
and Spain, is shown on the map following page 280. 



The Huguenot Wars in France 



367 



power in 1624, and to the day of his death in 1642 he was master 
of the French kingdom. 

With the eye of the true statesman, RicheUeu saw the evils of 
his country and with a master hand he set about to correct them. 
Three great tasks he imposed on himself: (i) to deprive the 
Huguenots of the political and mihtary power unwisely granted 
them by the Edict of Nantes ; (2) to clip the wings of the nobility, 
who had become arrogant 
and threatening since the 
death of Henry IV ; (3) to 
humble the House of Haps- 
burg (sec. 249), the great 
rival of the French royal 
family. 

The Huguenots had be- 
come menacing in their po- 
litical and military power. 
Richelieu besieged and cap- 
tured La Rochelle, their 
chief city, and disarmed 
them throughout the coun- 
try. And then, instead of 
forcing them back into the 
Catholic Church or burning 
them at the stake, as many 
a ruler of that time would 
have done, he granted them 
freedom of conscience and 
of worship and all the civil 
rights enjoyed by the Cath- 
olics. No statesman from that day to the present has improved 
on this noble act of Cardinal Richeheu. 

The nobility were haughty and defiant. Richelieu saw that 
for the good of the state it was necessary to subdue them. But 
many of the great lords, entrenched in their castles, sought to 




Cardinal Richelieu 
From a portrait in the Louvre. 



368 The Period of the Reformation 

continue their old feudal practices and defied his power. One of 
the greatest dukes in the kingdom, declaring that he would not 
be governed by this upstart, openly violated the law. Richelieu 
had him hanged in a public square in the city of Paris. The 
nobles soon learned that there was a master at the helm. They 
were completely subdued and never afterward did they success- 
fully encroach on the royal authority. 

The third of Richelieu's projects, the humbling of the House of 
Hapsburg, will be noticed in the account of the Thirty Years' 
War (sec. 325). 

II. Revolt of the Netherlands 

317. Spain and the Netherlands. — No people ever fought more 
heroically for religious freedom than the people of the Nether- 
lands, comprising what is now Belgium and Holland. Much of 
the land lies below the level of the sea and is reclaimed for culti- 
vation by dikes, ridges of earth thrown up by the hand of man. 
Centuries of heroic struggle were required to complete the exten- 
sive system of dikes and canals. More fertile and beautiful 
farms and meadows cannot be found in Europe than those in- 
closed by the dikes and drained by the canals of the Netherlands. 
There were also splendid cities, and the land was rich and pros- 
perous. 

The people may be divided into two classes, the Walloons in the 
south, who spoke the French language, and the Teutons of the 
north, who spoke the kindred languages, Dutch and Flemish. 

The whole country in the sixteenth century was a possession 
of the Spanish crown, having become so through Hapsburg 
marriages (sec. 277). 

The great majority of the people, especially in the north, had 
been converted to Protestantism. But the emperor Charles V, 
and later his son Philip H, determined to force them back into 
the Catholic Church. Hence came one of the most distressing 
of the religious wars. Charles introduced the Inquisition and 
there were many burnings at the stake. He went so far as to 



Revolt of the Netherlands 369 

pronounce the sentence of death on all who discussed the Scrip- 
tures or attended secret prayer meetings. When Philip came to 
the Spanish throne he carried the persecution still further and 
waged ruthless war on the unhappy people. 

318. The Duke of Alva and the Council of Blood. — Philip 
II was in the Netherlands when his father, Charles V, gave him 
the throne of Spain (sec. 289). Here he remained for four years, 
laying his plans for the suppression of heresy and for increasing 
the power of the crown, and then he departed for Spain, never 
to return. As governor of the Netherlands he chose Margaret, his 
half-sister. She mercilessly employed the Inquisition. Led by 
the nobles, the people petitioned for better conditions. In 
derision they were called beggars. They accepted the term and 
adopted " Beggars " as their party name. 

As their grievances were not redressed, the people broke forth 
in uncontrollable fury. They invaded the Catholic churches and 
destroyed beautiful works of art, stained-glass windows and 
sacred images. Would Philip heed such warnings that these 
people would not permit him to rule like a despot and dictate 
their religion? Instead, he sent to succeed Margaret the Duke 
of Alva, whose name in history means about the same as human 
butcher. 

Alva was a bigoted tyrant to whom mercy was a meaningless 
word. Arriving at Brussels in 1567, accompanied by 10,000 
Spanish soldiers, he set up an infamous council known as the 
Council of Blood. Its duties were to ferret out and punish all 
who were suspected of heresy or who had taken part in the image- 
breaking riots. He is said to have boasted later that he put to 
death in this unhappy land 18,000 people. Nor did he confine 
himself to Protestants. He put to death Catholics also, and 
among his victims were Counts Egmont and Horn, leading 
Catholic nobles who had espoused the cause of the people. Thou- 
sands of the inhabitants escaped into Germany. Among these 
was the Prince of Orange, known as William the Silent, who was 
destined to become the savior of the country. 



370 



The Period of the Reformation 



319. William the Silent and the Founding of a Nation. — 

The name of WiUiam the Silent stands in the same class as 
those of Alfred the Great and George Washington. He is called 
the Prince of Orange, because he owned an estate in southern 
France named Orange. He came to be known as the Silent 
because on one occasion when the French king told him that there 
was an agreement between Spain and France to root out Protes- 




Untversity of Leyden 

From an engraving made in 1614. This university was founded by William the 
Silent in 1575, as a reward for the heroic defense of the city in the previous year. 
According to tradition the citizens were offered their choice between a university 
and exemption from certain taxes. They chose the university. From 1625, for 
almost 200 years, this was one of the famous universities of Europe. It was to the 
city of Leyden that a band of separatists went in 1607-1608, from England, to es- 
cape persecution for their independence in religion. Some of them, known to 
history as the Pilgrim Fathers, came from Leyden to America, after a short stay 
in England, and were the founders of the Plymouth Colony. 



tantism from the Netherlands with fire and sword, he remained 
silent, though in his soul he resolved to defend the people of the 
Netherlands with his fortune and his life. 

It was William of Orange who saved the Dutch people from 
being utterly crushed under the grinding heel of Spain. He led 



Revolt of the Netherlands . 371 

an army against the cruel Alva and later against his successor, 
and, though defeated more than once, the brave defenders of 
home and liberty rallied again and again aroutid the standard of 
their intrepid leader. 

At the siege of Leyden (li'den) in 1574 the people were sorely 
pressed and William was unable to break through the besieging 
army to their rescue. Then it was resolved to cut the dikes near 
Leyden. This was done and the sea rushed in, covering the low- 
lands around the city. The Spaniards had to flee for their 
lives, but many of them were engulfed in the angry waves. Thus 
the city was saved, and to commemorate the event William 
founded for the people the University of Leyden, which remains 
to this day as a noble monument to those heroic times. 

The king of Spain, unable to crush \MIliam, resorted to the 
contemptible and cowardly means of assassination. He offered 
the reward of a title to nobility and a large sum of money to 
any one who would take the life of his unconquerable enemy. 

In 1579 a new nation, the Dutch Republic, came into being. 
It was formed by the union of seven of the northern provinces, 
one of which was Holland, and the whole country is usually called 
by the name of this province. The leading provinces of the new- 
bom republic chose William as their governor, and in later times 
when the republic became a monarchy his descendants occupied the 
throne. The southern provinces, including the Walloons and 
most of the Flemish people, submitted to Spain, were later an Aus- 
trian dominion, and finally became the kingdom of Belgium. 

In 1584 the wicked proclamation of Philip II bore its fruit. 
William was shot by an assassin in his own house. The assassin 
was put to death with torture, but his family received the reward 
which Philip had offered. 

William the Silent is an admirable figure in history. Though 
cut down in the prime of his life, his great work was done. The 
nation he had founded continued to fight for liberty until it won 
absolute independence of Spain. The people of Holland still 
regard WiUiam the Silent as the Father of his Country. 



372 The Period of the Reformation 

III. The Thirty Years' War, 1618-1648 

320. Causes. — The last and greatest of the religious wars is 
known as the Thirty Years' War. Various nations were engaged 
in it, but the fighting was chiefly on the soil of Germany. 

During the first half of the thirty-year period the war was almost 
purely religious. The Catholics fought to regain their old-time 
prestige in Germany ; the Protestants fought for their existence, 
for religious liberty. 

During the second half of the period, the war came to be 
chiefly political. The great nations fought for supremacy. 
Both the rehgious and the political questions were settled at the 
end of the war in the treaty of Westpha'lia, 1648. 

The war of Charles V against the Lutherans of Germany ended 
in 1555 (sec. 289). The treaty of Augsburg then made was weak 
in two points. First, it recognized the rights of Lutherans, but 
not of Calvinists, who were not numerous at that time. Later 
the Calvinists grew to large numbers, but they had no legal right 
to exist in the Empire. Being persecuted, they rose in rebellion, 
and during the first years the war was largely between Catholics 
and Calvinists. 

Second, in the treaty of Augsburg the Catholic party insisted on 
inserting a clause by which it was provided that if there were 
further conversions of congregations or dioceses to Lutheranism, 
the converts could not take their church property with them, 
but must leave it with the Catholic Church. The Lutherans, 
believing this unjust, refused to observe it. 

After the war had gone on for some years and the emperor 
Ferdinand II had almost crushed the Calvinists, he determined 
to strike a blow at the Lutherans also. That is, he decided to 
take back the church property that they had taken in violation 
of the treaty of Augsburg. This roused the Lutherans and 
henceforth they fought side by side with the Calvinists. 

321. Early Years of the War. — The long war had its beginning 
in Bohemia, the land of John Hus (sec. 281). Most of the Bohe- 



The Thirty Years' War 373 

mians were now Protestants, and had secured from their king a 
decree of rehgious toleration. But after they had chosen the 
Catholic Ferdinand II as heir to the throne, Protestant worship 
was forbidden in some of the churches in and near Prague, the 
capital of Bohemia. Thereupon the Protestant leaders invaded 
the king's castle and threw two of his agents out of the window. 
They took over the government and chose Frederick, a Calvinist 
German prince, king of Bohemia.^ 

Frederick came to Prague and was crowned amid wild hurrahs ; 
but his triumph was short. The armies of the emperor Ferdinand 
II overpowered his own and, he fled from his capital by night. 
Bohemia was then treated with the utmost harshness by the em- 
peror and Protestantism there was almost uprooted. 

The next important Protestant leader to enter the war was 
Christian IV, king of Denmark. The theater of war was now 
transferred to the north. Christian made a brave fight, but he 
had no chance against the two armies sent by the emperor. 
One of these was commanded by Count Tilly and the other by 
Wallenstein (wol'en-stm) , a Bohemian nobleman. Christian was 
driven back into his own country, and in 1629 when he signed a 
treaty of peace he was glad to receive back the land that had been 
won from him. He agreed to take no further part in the war. 

322. Wallenstein. — A most striking figure in the Thirty 
Years' War was Wallenstein. He was a great commander, but he 
was unscrupulous and cruel. With a large army he traversed 
Germany from end to end for seven years, spreading terror and 
desolation on all sides. 

The people. Catholics and Protestants alike, cried out to the 
emperor for protection from this brutal devastation of their 
homes, and Ferdinand dismissed him. 

Wallenstein had grown immensely rich by looting and plunder- 
ing the helpless people. He retired to his palace at Prague, where 

1 It is interesting to note that this Frederick's wife was Elizabeth, daughter of 
James I, king of England, and that they were ancestors of the House of Hanover, 
the present dynasty of English kings. 




374 



The Thirty Years' War 375 

he lived like an oriental nabob. He destroj^ed a hundred homes 
to make a courtyard for his palace ; he was waited on by nobles. 
But withal he was said to be a gloomy, distant, silent man, 
supremely indifferent to praise and blame, who never sought 
amusement and never smiled. 

323. Gustavus Adolphus, the Lion of the North. — The greatest 
and most admirable character brought into world prominence by 
the Thirty Years' War was Gusta'vus Adol'phus, king of Sweden. 
For twelve years the war had continued. Germany lay bleeding 
and helpless. Protestantism seemed paralyzed throughout the 
desolated land. It was at this time that Emperor Ferdinand 
issued a decree to force the restoration of all the church property 
that the Lutherans had taken over in violation of the treaty of 
Augsburg. On this account and in the fear that the emperor 
would encroach on his own dominions, the great Swedish king 
determined to cross the Baltic to the aid of his brethren in the 
faith. 

With a fond farewell to his beloved Sweden, which his eyes were 
to behold no more, Gustavus set out with his army and landed in 
Germany (July, 1630). No commander of armies ever showed 
higher principles or a loftier spirit. A greater contrast to Wallen- 
stein could not be imagined. Gustavus forbade profanity in the 
army, forbade also the mistreatment of a captured foe. Twice 
every daj he summoned his men to a religious service. 

Count Tilly was the emperor's chief commander when the 
Swedish army landed in Germany. For more than a year Tilly 
evaded meeting this " Lion of the North." Meantime Tilly 
captured and destroyed the beautiful city of Magdeburg (mag'de- 
boorK) and massacred the inhabitants to the number of 30,000.^ 
The people were aroused to fury by this appalling crime, and 

1 In the left foreground of the picture on the opposite page are Tilly's cuirassiers. 
Cavalrymen, each with a foot soldier behind him on his horse, are fording an arm 
of the Elbe River, in order to attack the city. The fortifications defending the 
bridge head were captured, and the town was entered by way of the island. The 
city had withstood a seven months' siege by Wallenstein the preceding year, but at 
this time the cathedral and about loo houses alone escaped destruction. 



376 The Period of the Reformation 

thousands joined the army of the Swedish king. It was said that 
" The freedom of Germany arose like a phoenix^ from the ashes 
of Magdeburg." 

In the fall of 1631 the two great generals met in the battle of 
Breitenfeld (bri'ten-felt), and Tilly was defeated. Again they met 
the following April and Tilly was defeated and slain. Gustavus 
was now master of Germany. Emperor Ferdinand was in despair. 
He decided to play his last card. He recalled Wallenstein. 

324. The Battle of Liitzen. — Wallenstein's terms on re- 
entering the war were humiliating to the emperor, but were 
accepted. Neither he nor the Swedish king had ever been de- 
feated. After sparring for some months they came together at 
Liitzen (liit'sen), where one of the memorable world battles was 
fought (November, 1632). The Swedes won a decisive victory, 
but at great cost. Their king and commander was killed while 
leading a cavalry charge. 

Gustavus Adolphus was the greatest commander of his age, 
and one of the noblest characters in history. Two things the 
Swedish king introduced in warfare which have been adopted 
by the modern world ; the establishing of a base of supplies for 
an army, thus obviating the barbarous method of living off the 
country ; and the humane treatment of a captured enemy. 
What might have been the outcome had he lived through the war 
is only conjecture. As it was, it seems certain that without him 
Protestantism in Germany would have perished. From the 
final blow at Liitzen the emperor never recovered, and the pres- 
tige of the House of Hapsburg was permanently crippled. 

Fearing the ambitions of Wallenstein, Ferdinand again dis- 
missed him and put a price on his head, which resulted in his 
assassination in 1634. 

325. France and the Treaty of Westphalia. — For many 
years longer the dreadful war continued ; the last period was 

'According to a medieval fable, the phoenix was a bird that lived in Arabia; 
after a long life it was believed to burn itself by fire, and then to rise in renewed 
youth from its own ashes. 




facing 377 



i 



The Thirty Years' War 377 

known as the French period, as the preceding was called the 
Swedish period. The leading figure was now Richelieu, the great 
French minister (sec. 316). Catholic though- he was, he sent his 
armies to fight for the Protestant cause. His object was to 
cripple the House of Hapsburg and to make France the leading 
nation of Europe. He had aided Gustavus Adolphus with large 
sums of money, and now when that intrepid leader was gone, he 
sent French armies to join those of Sweden. It is needless for 
us to follow the contest further. The French-Swedish armies 
were generally successful ; the emperor was greatly weakened ; 
and Germany became a scene of desolation and ruin. 

Nearly half the population of Gerrnany had perished. Thou- 
sands of churches and schools were destroyed. Whole districts 
were made desolate. A writer of the time says that one might 
travel forty miles and scarcely see a human being. More than a 
century passed before Germany recovered from the awful ruin 
and devastation of this cruel war. 

Both sides were weary and exhausted and after years of effort 
to bring about peace it came at last with the treaty of West- 
phalia, 1648. By this treaty some important political changes 
were made. Sweden received extensive lands along the Baltic 
and North seas ; France received Alsace ; Holland (the United 
Netherlands) and Switzerland (the Swiss Confederation) were rec- 
ognized as independent nations. The Emperor's power was 
weakened except in Austria, and the German states became almost 
independent, while France became the leading power in Europe. 

Far greater in importance was the religious settlement. In brief 
it was simply this : Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinist princes 
were recognized as having, equal rights and privileges in the 
Empire, and each was left free to impose his own faith on his 
people. The pope refused to ratify the treaty and pronounced 
null and void all concessions to the Protestants. But the war- 
weary nations refused to heed and the treaty went into effect. 

Since the treaty of Westphalia the world has had no war based 
on differences in religion. The principle of toleration has spread 
EL. M. T. — 25 



378 The Period of the Reformation 

through all countries and the adherents of the various faiths have 
learned to respect one another. The treaty of Westphalia is a 
landmark in the history of Europe, 

Questions and Topics. — I. Why were there religious wars in Ger- 
many, France, and the Netherlands and not in England, Scotland, Scan- 
dinavia, Spain, and Italy? Name the three notable religious wars. 
Why was the Edict of Nantes issued and by whom? In what respect 
was it defective? Write an essay on Cardinal Richelieu. What were 
his three great self-imposed tasks? How did he treat the Protestants 
after he had subdued them? 

II. How did the Netherlands become a possession of Spain? Would 
the transfer of a people to a foreign yoke on such grounds be possible in 
our time? Give an estimate of the life and achievements of William 
the Silent. 

III. For what did each side contend in the Thirty Years' War? 
What were the defects of the treaty of Augsburg of 1555? Who were 
the Calvinists as compared with the Lutherans? Give an account of 
the opening of the war. Who was Wallenstein? Why did Gustavus 
Adolphus enter the war? Why is the battle of Liitzen considered an 
important historic event? Why did the Catholic Cardinal Richelieu 
aid the Protestants in the war? What was the French period and why 
so called? Why is the treaty of Westphalia a landmark in history? 
What is a religious war as compared with a political war? with an 
economic war? with a dynastic war? Can you nanie one of each 
kind? 

Events and Dates. — Huguenot religious wars in France, 1562-1598. 
Edict of Nantes, 1598. Richelieu, died 1642. Birth of the Dutch 
Republic, 1579. Death of William the Silent, 1584. The Thirty 
Years' War, 1618-1648. Battle of Liitzen and death of Gustavus 
Adolphus, 1632. Treaty of Westphalia, 1648. 

For Further Reading. — Young, A History of the Netherlands. 
Harrison, William the Silent. Stevens, Gustavus Adolphus. Thompson, 
Wars of Religion in France. Hayes, History of Modern Europe, Vol. I. 
'Robinson, Readings in Modern European History, Vol. II. Perkins, 
Richelieu and the Growth of French Power. Gardiner, 'The Thirty 
Years' War (Epoch series). Schiller, Thirty Years' War (in English), an 
interesting narrative, but uncritical. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

THE STUARTS AND THE PURITANS IN ENGLAND 

I. The Reign of James I (1603-1625) 

326. King James. — On the death of Ehzabeth in 1603 the 
Tudor dynasty became extinct, and for the next hundred years 
the Stuart dynasty occupied the English throne. The first of 
the Stuart kings was James I, a descendant of Henry VII, whose 
daughter Margaret had married James Stuart, king of Scotland. 
Of this couple James I was the great-grandson, and he was the 
son of Mary Queen of Scots (sec. 309). He became king of Scot- 
land as James VI, when only a year old, but as England had not had 
a king of that name, he became James I of England. He con- 
tinued king of both countries until the end of his life, and was 
succeeded in both by the same heir. Thus the crowns of Eng- 
land and Scotland were united, but for more than a hundred years 
each had its own parliament and separate government. 

James was ill fitted for the great business that devolved upon 
him as king of England. His life had been spent among the tur- 
bulent Scotch nobles, whom he could not manage. He was 
ungainly in appearance and uncouth in manners. He was irri- 
table and quick-tempered and sometimes violent when angry. 
He loved to parade his learning and was called " the wisest fool 
in Christendom." James was kind-hearted and not a tyrant, but 
as a monarch he was weak, and the progress that England made 
during his reign was not due to him. Scarcely had he arrived in 
England when he made a bad impression on his new subjects 
by prating of the " divine right " of kings and declaring it seditious 
for subjects to dispute what a king may do. 

327. James and the Puritans. — The Puritans were a large 
and growing class in England who contended that the Church of 

379 



380 The Period of the Reformation 

England was not sufficiently reformed and had retained too many 
of the Catholic practices. Many of the Puritans refused to con- 
form with the church's requirements and were called noncon- 
formists ; others separated from it entirely and were called 
sep'aratists. 

The Puritans hoped for much from the new king. While 
he was on his way to London they met him and presented a great 
petition, said to have been signed by a thousand ministers, pray- 
ing for certain reforms in the church. 

In consequence James arranged for the " Hampton Court 
Conference," which met the following January. ^ The king 
himself presided. The Puritans soon discovered that they could 
expect no favors from him. Brought up in the midst of the 
Scotch Presbyterians, he despised Presbyterianism because of 
its independence, declaring that it agreed with monarchy as God 
with the devil. Of the Puritans he said, " I will make them con- 
form themselves, or else I will harry them out of the land." It 
was this harsh attitude that drove the Pilgrim Fathers to Holland 
and later to the shores of Massachusetts. 

One memorable thing was done by this conference at Hamp- 
ton Court. It was arranged that a new English translation of 
the Bible be made by the leading scholars of England. The 
result was, the "authorized version" of 161 1, which has since 
been used by hundreds of millions of people. 

328. James and the Catholics ; Gunpowder Plot. — The 
Catholics expected much from this son of Mary Stuart who had 
been faithful to their church to the day of her death. James was 
milder toward them than toward the Puritans ; ai;id was accused 
of leaning toward Rome. The king chafed under the accusation 
and, moreover, some of the leading priests were turbulent. James 
therefore issued a decree banishing priests, and Parliament 
revived the penal laws of Elizabeth against them. 

These things led to the Gunpowder Plot, in 1605. The chief 

^ This conference was so named from the palace where it was held, a few miles 
from London. 



England under James I 



381 



of this dangerous conspiracy was Robert Catesby. Among 
his associates was Guy Fawkes. They hired a house with a 
cellar extending under the Parliament building. Here they 
secretly stored twenty barrels of gunpowder, and covered them 
with billets of wood and iron bars. ' The purpose was to blow 




Hampton Court Palace 

This, the largest royal palace in Great Britain, was founded in 1515 by Cardinal 
Wolsey, who later presented it to Henry VIII. It stands on the bank of the Thames 
near London. It was occupied at various times by the Stuarts, Cromwell, and 
William III. It no longer serves as a royal residence, but more than 800 of its 1000 
rooms are occupied by aristocratic pensioners of the crown. Its galleries contain 
a fine collection of paintings, including portraits of the so-called " Hampton Court 
beauties," ladies of the court of William and Mary. 



up the two houses of Parliament, together with the king and his 
eldest son, on the opening of the session in November. A general 
uprising of the Catholics and a setting up of a new government was 
to be the next act in the drama. 

But the secret leaked out, a search was made, and Guy Fawkes 
was arrested in the cellar while keeping guard over the powder. 
He and Catesby and others in the plot suffered death, and England 



382 The Period of the Reformation 

for two hundred years celebrated annually with bonfires and 
rejoicing the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot. 

The Catholic people as a whole could not of course have been 
guilty of this dastardly deed, but they had to bear the blame. 
Parliament made very severe laws against them and for a century 
they did not recover from the odium of the murderous conspiracy. 

329. King James and his Parliaments. — All through the 
period of the Stuart dynasty there was friction between the sov- 
ereign and Parliament, at times very serious. Two or three 
causes may be given for this contest. First, the Stuarts attempted 
to govern the country with an iron hand, as the Tudors had done, 
but they lacked the ability and the tact to do so. Second, 
the people of England were more enlightened and more jealous 
of their liberties. If a third be given, it may be found in the 
assumption by King James of high prerogatives at the start, of 
the divine right of kings, of a contemptuous attitude toward 
Parliament, disgusting and alienating many of the members. 

The century-long contest brought constant quarrelings with 
the Stuart kings, and it brought- civil war. The final result, as 
we shall see, was a complete triumph of Parliament. 

At the first session of the reign, in March, 1604, King James 
declared that the House of Commons derived all its privileges 
from him, to which the answer was made that he had been 
greatly wronged by misinformation, that its privileges were a 
lawful inheritance and not a gift from the sovereign. 

From the beginning James was greatly hampered by lack of 
money. The public expenditures exceeded the revenues. He 
badgered Parliament for more and more money. It was granted 
grudgingly or not at all. One Parliament debated " grievances " 
for two months without passing a measure and was dissolved. 
On one occasion James said to a friend that he was surprised 
that his ancestors should have permitted such an institution as 
Parliament to come into existence, but supposed that he would 
have to put up with it. 

King James attempted to raise money in various ways, one of 



England under Charles I 383 

which was to sell peerages at 10,000 pounds apiece ; but there 
were few purchasers. Worn out at last with the gout, with his 
quarrels with Parliament, with the failure of nearly all his projects, 
the aged king passed away in March, 1625, and was succeeded 
by his son Charles. 

330. Other Events of the Reign. — As every American reader 
knows, the first permanent English settlement in Virginia was 
made but four years after James's accession and was called after 
his name. In 1620 the Pilgrim Fathers landed at Plymouth Rock 
and they with later settlers laid the foundations of Massachusetts. 

One year after the founding of Jamestown the great English 
poet John Milton was born, and the year 1616 marks the death 
of Shakespeare. 

In one of his projects King James was in advance of his age. 
He worked for an organic union between England and Scotland, 
but the opposition could not be overcome. The project hung 
fire for a hundred years and was not consummated until 1707, 
when the separate parliaments and governments of the. two coun- 
tries were united, and the combined kingdom was called Great 
Britain. 



II. Charles I and the Civil War, 1625-1649 

331. The Petition of Right. — Young, handsome, of proud and 
kingly bearing, Charles came to the throne amidst the plaudits 
of the multitude. His father had come to England a stranger ; 
Charles had been brought up among the people and knew their 
wants and their tastes. His opportunity for success was greater 
than that of his father. His failure also was greater. 

King Charles was not without ability, but he was obstinate, 
secretive, and tactless. His attitude toward the Puritans was 
heartless. If James scourged them with whips, Charles scourged 
them with scorpions. 

Three Parliaments Charles called into existence within the 
first four years. None of them paid him homage or bowed to 



384 The Period of the Reformation 

his will. He was at war with both France and Spain. He sent 
out several expeditions, but as Parliament refused to grant sup- 
plies, all ended in failure. Charles then resorted to forced loans. 




Children of Charles 1 

Portrait by Van Dyck, in Windsor Castle. The three children are the Prince of 
Wales, later King Charles II ; the Duke of York, afterwards King James II ; and 
the Princess Mary, later mother of the Prince of Orange, King William III. Van 
Dyck, famed for elegance and refinement as an artist, was King Charles's court 
painter. He left many pictures of the royal family, which are among the great 
portraits of the world. 

He levied heavy taxes on individuals and imprisoned those who 
refused to pay. 

In 1628 Parliament framed a bill setting forth the rights of 
the people similar to the charter which was forced on King John 
at Runnymede in 12 15 (sec. 237). It is known as the Petition 
of Right. By this petition it is guaranteed that no English free- 
man shall be compelled to make forced loans, nor to yield any 
gift or tax without the consent of Parliament ; also that no man 



England under Charles I 385 

shall be imprisoned or put to death except in accordance with the 
laws of the land. 

This document is regarded as second only to the Magna Charta 
as a bulwark of English liberty. The king tried to avoid 
signing it, but yielded because the temper of the nation was 
such that a refusal might have brought serious consequences. 
Even then he could not bend Parliament to his will. He there- 
upon dismissed it and for eleven years managed affairs as best 
he could without a Parliament. 

332. Laud and Wentworth. — King Charles was peculiarly 
unfortunate in the choice of his ministers. Utterly wanting as 
the king was in tact and in ability to understand his people, he 
might have neutralized this defect by choosing as his advisers 
men of a more compromising spirit. This he did not do. He 
chose as his chief advisers two men who were as intolerant and 
tactless as himself. 

In 1628 Thomas Wentworth (later the Earl of Strafford) be- 
came the royal favorite and chief minister of state. Wentworth 
had been a leader in Parliament and was one of the framers of 
the Petition of Right. He now went over to the side of the king 
and served him faithfully to the end. 

William Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, an extreme high 
churchman and hater of the Puritans, became Charles's religious 
leader and manager of the religious affairs of the nation. These 
two men together with their king governed the nation for nearly 
a full decade. None of them was bad at heart, or desirous of 
trampling the rights of the people under foot. But they were 
singularly alike in their blindness to the signs of the times, their 
inability to understand the temper of the people. Slowly but 
steadily they alienated the people until there was scarcely a 
bond of sympathy remaining. 

Wentworth as governor of Ireland did " thorough " work, as 
he termed it. He badgered the Irish Parliament and imprisoned 
jurymen for not deciding cases as he wished. He restored order 
and subdued the people ; but also he incurred their undying hatred, 



386 



The Period of the Reformation 



Archbishop Laud beUeved Puritanism to be an evil that should 
be suppressed by force. He was doubtless sincere, but he could 
not understand the Puritan conscience, nor had he patience 
with any one who differed with him. The Puritans objected 
to the " popish " ceremonies of the Church of England, and 
they were horrified when Laud issued a proclamation permitting 



Tlie.yontk Ro tect- oPtlle Caikeclra! and 
Mch-opoIitonCnrirV CKurck of CanlerLury 




atr- _ -^^ 



Ecciefiff CatkedTaliiyet Metropoliticj 



Canterbury Cathedral 

The seat of the archbishops of Canterbury, primates of England, from the time of 
Saint Augustiiie in 597. The present cathedral dates from the eleventh century 
and is a fine example of English Gothic architecture. It was to this shrine that 
Chaucer's company made their pilgrimage (sec. 262). The old archbishop's palace, 
near by, was destroyed by the Puritans during the primacy of Archbishop Laud. 



Sunday amusements. The clergy were ordered to read this 
decree in their churches, but many of them refused. For this 
they were persecuted and punished. No one was put to death, 
but many writers and divines had their ears cut off and served 
long terms in prison. Twenty thousand of the Puritans fled to 
Massachusetts to escape the persecutions of Laud. 



England under Charles I 387 

333. John Hampden and the Ship Money. — King Charles 
was hard pressed for money and he devised" various means of 
raising it. He collected poundage and tonnage, that is, taxes 
on ships entering British ports ; he sold knighthoods and monopo- 
lies. A monopoly was the exclusive right to trade in a certain 
article ; for example, the sole right to sell tobacco in a certain 
city or county or in the whole kingdom. At length he revived 
an old practice of collecting ship money. In the past it was the 
custom to require the coast cities to furnish ships or money in 
time of danger from the sea. Charles extended this requirement 
to the whole country, even in times of peace. The tax was un- 
popular. It seemed as if the king had found a way to tax the 
people permanently without the consent of Parliament, which 
was contrary to law and custom. But most of the people paid 
the tax in sullen submission. John Hampden proved an excep- 
tion. 

John Hampden was a wealthy country squire of an independent 
spirit. When the collector came to him for the tax, he refused to 
pay it, though it was but twenty shillings. He was put on trial in 
the king's court and the case was made a test case. It was decided 
in favor of the king, seven of the twelve judges voting for him. 
But the cause of the king was injured far more than it was bene- 
fited by the trial, for Hampden's lawyers showed clearly that the 
tax was illegal. And Hampden became a popular hero. 

334. The Long Parliament. — After the Hampden trial condi- 
tions grew steadily worse. The king and his archbishop were 
utterly unyielding. A high court called the Star Chamber de- 
cided great questions of state arbitrarily in defiance of the jury 
system ; another called the Court of High Commission dealt 
relentlessly with matters of the church. The people were not 
consulted. Discontent was widespread. The king, owing to 
a short war with his Scotch subjects, was paralyzed for want of 
money, and he called a Parliament to meet in 1640. As it did 
not grant him money, he dismissed it and called for the election 
of another Parliament. This met late in 1640 and came to be 



388 The Period of the Reformation 

known as the Long Parhament, the most famous in Enghsh 
history. 

The leader was John Pym, a statesman of liigh order, whose 
influence was so great that he was called " King Pym " by his 
enemies. Next to him stood the intrepid John Hampden of ship 
money fame. But in the years to come both of these men were 
overshadowed by another member, a cousin of Hampden's, who 
was destined to become the strongest man of his time and one 
of the most famous in English history — Oliver Cromwell. 

The Long Parliament proved far more hostile to the king than 
any that had preceded it. Charles had no choice but to bow to 
its will. Parliament proceeded to business in a most drastic 
manner. It set out to transfer the government of the nation from 
the hands of the king to itself. 

It abolished the Star Chamber and the Court of High Commis- 
sion, and set free their victims from prison. It passed the Trien- 
nial Bill, providing that the intervals between Parliaments should 
never exceed three years. It pronounced ship money illegal 
and annulled the judgment against Hampden. It impeached 
the Earl of Strafford (Wentworth) 'and condemned him to death. 
Charles had promised Strafford that in no case should he be 
punished, but when the angry crowd gathered without, the help- 
less monarch signed the death warrant of his nearest friend, 
declaring that Strafford's condition was happier than his own. 
The fallen minister went to the scaffold exclaiming bitterly, 
" Put not your trust in princes." Even the aged Archbishop 
Laud was impeached and, after languishing for a time in prison, 
was dragged forth to have his hoary head severed from his body. 

On the same day on which the unhappy king signed the death 
warrant of Strafford he put his name to another bill which proved 
his undoing, which gave the victory to his enemies at last, and 
compassed his own downfall with the loss of his kingdom and his 
life. The bill provided that the existing Parliament could not 
be dissolved without its own consent. 

The time soon came when divisions over the religious ques- 



The Civil War in England 389 

tion began to appear in Parliament. Here would have been 
Charles's opportunity to dissolve it and trust to the election of 
a more favorable one ; but the fatal signature to the bill that it 
should not be dissolved without its own consent stood in the 
way. 

335. Drifting toward War. — Nevertheless, Charles took heart 
and began to plot for the recovery of his lost power. By a close 
vote Parliament passed the Grand Remonstrance, setting forth 
the misgovemment of the king from the beginning of his reign 
and also the demands of Parliament upon him. Cromwell de- 
clared that if it had not passed, he would have left England next 
day never to return. 

Charles rejected the Grand Remonstrance and attempted to 
arrest for treason five of the leading members of Parliament, 
including Pym and Hampden. With a body of armed men the 
king went to the House of Commons ; but the men had escaped 
and the attempt failed. 

The queen, a sister of the king of France, was unyielding and 
more obstinate even than the king. When he hesitated about 
arresting the five men, she said, " Go, you coward, and drag 
those rogues out by the ears." After exacting from her husband 
a promise that he would stay and fight it out to the bitter end, she 
escaped to the Continent. He did stay to fight it out and he 
fought a losing game. The people were now divided into two 
hostile camps. The king's party were called Cavaliers (kav-a- 
lerz') , meaning horsemen ; the Puritan party, from their close- 
cropped hair, were called Roundheads. There was no longer hope 
of compromise. The country was drifting into civil war. 

336. The Civil War. — Open war began in November, 1642, 
and continued at intervals for more than six years. The north 
and west of England, the poorer and less progressive parts, were 
with the king, while the east and south, including London, took 
the side of Parliament. The king attempted to rouse the Irish 
in his behalf and to secure the help of the Continent, but met 
with little success. 



390 



The Period of the Reformation 



<l!&>^"S, 



Parliament courted the Scots and made an agreement with 
them. Tlie Scots were to furnish troops, and Scotch Presby- 
terianism was to prevail in England. For a short time the 
Presbyterians had control of Parliament and it was then that the 
West'minster Confession was framed (1643), which still remains 

the distinctive Pres- 
byterian creed. 

Parliament had 
control of the arse- 
nals and the navy, 
and almost from the 
first the war went 
against the king. In 
1643 the parliamen- 
tary party suffered 
great loss in the 
deaths of Pym and 
Hampden, but Crom- 
well soon assumed 
the leadership and 
became the most con- 
spicuous figure in the 
war. 

Cromwell organ- 
ized a body of cav- 
alry called " Iron- 
sides," composed of 
men who were ready to brave all dangers at the word of their com- 
mander. Cromwell was fervently religious and he had the power 
to electrify the army with his own spirit. The leader on the king's 
side was his nephew. Prince Rupert, a courageous leader, but rash 
and reckless in battle. 

The first great battle of the war was at Marston Moor, in July, 
1644, where Rupert and the royalist army were completely de- 
feated by Cromwell. The following year another battle was fought 




England in the Civil War (1642) 



The Commonwealth of England 391 

at Naseby (naz'bi) in which Cromwell won a still more signal vic- 
tory, almost annihilating the king's army. Charles later fled 
to Scotland and threw himself on the mercy of the Scots ; but 
they delivered him over to the English. Both Parliament and 
the army tried to negotiate with him. They were ready to forget 
the past, to begin over again, if the king would only agree to rule 
in accordance with law. But Charles was unbending ; he would 

y 

yield nothing ; he even stirred up another war w'hile a prisoner. 

337. Execution of the King (1649). — The leaders of the 
army were now convinced that nothing but the death of the 
king would bring tranquillity to the kingdom. They soon put 
down the new rebellion and "purged" Parliament of the mem- 
bers favorable to the king.^ The remaining members, called 
the Rump Parliament, then proceeded to bring the king to trial. 
It created a High Court of Justice. 

Before this court Charles refused to plead, denying its right 
to try him. It pronounced him guilty and condemned him to 
death as " a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy." The 
king faced death with Christian courage. He was sent to the 
scaffold and beheaded on the 30th of January, 1649, the year 
after the close of the Thirty Years' War. 

It was not really the people of England who put their king to 
death, nor even Parliament. It was the army, and the army was 
controlled by Oliver Cromwell, who soon became the master of 
England. 

III. Oliver Cromwell and the Commonwealth 

338. Troubles of the New Republic. — The English repubhc 
or Commonwealth had a thorny road to travel. The beheading 

* of the king had sent a shiver of horror throughout the country 
and over all Europe. A majority of the people in England did 
not approve of the extreme action of the regicides. Ireland 

1 This was called "Pride's Purge," because Colonel Pride, with a body of armed 
men, drove the undesirable members out. 



392 The Period of the Reformation 

and Scotland rose in revolt and were encouraged by the royal 
party of England. 

Cromwell led his army into Ireland and devastated the island 
from end to end. At Drogheda (dro'he-da) and Wexford he 
put the captured garrisons to death without mercy, declaring 
that it was necessary in order to prevent an invasion of England. 
Later he went into Scotland and conquered every force that came 
against him. The Scots had proclaimed Prince Charles, son of 
the beheaded king, as their sovereign. Charles had landed in 
Scotland, and though he despised Presbyterianism, he promised 
to force it on England if the Scots would support him. They did 
so with great bravery, but when their army had been crushed by 
Cromwell at Worcester (wdos'ter) in September, 1651, Charles lost 
all hope and became a fugitive. After many strange adventures, 
he escaped in disguise to France. 

Meantime the Rump Parliament had abolished the office of 
king and the House of Lords. A council of state was appointed 
to carry on the government, but within a few years the whole 
governing power of the nation came to be centered in the hands 
of one man. 

339. Cromwell Becomes Lord Protector. — Long years had 
the country been distracted with civil war and political strife : 
its pressing need was a permanent and stable government. Crom- 
well and his army desired the selection of a new Parliament, but 
the old Rump Parliament held on and even planned to perpetuate 
its power. Cromwell then lost all patience and determined to 
make an end to their triifing. Entering the House one day in 
April, 1653, with a band of soldiers in waiting, Cromwell in an 
outburst of passion turned the members out of doors. 

" Come, come," he cried, " I will put an end to your prating. 
You are no Parliament, I say you are no Parliament. I will 
put an end to your sitting. Call them in, call them in." There- 
upon the sergeant opened the doors and two files of musketeers 
entered the House. In a few minutes the room was empty and 
Oliver Cromwell was master of the kingdom. 



The Commonwealth of England 



393 



A "Parliament," or assembl}^ was appointed, but it soon 
adjourned. Cromwell's friends then adopted a constitution 
called the Instrument of Government. This constitution was 
in force only a few years. It made Cromwell Lord Protector 
of England, Scotland, and Ireland, with greater power than 
Charles I had ever wielded. 




Cromwell Refusing the Crown 

' I cannot undertake this government with that title of King ; and that is my answer 
to this great and weighty business," was Cromwell's reply. 



340. The Reign of Cromwell. — A new Parliament was 
elected, but Cromwell soon dismissed it. The government was 
practically left in the hands of the Lord Protector, who governed 
by means of the army. Another Parliament offered Cfomwell 
the crown as hereditary king, but he declined the title. 

In foreign relations the reign of Cromwell was eminently suc- 
cessful. A war with the Dutch and another with Spain were 

EL. M. T. — 26 



394 The Period of the Reformation 

carried to triumphant results. Not since the days of Ehzabeth 
had the British name been so respected. But at home the great 
Protector was less successful. His weakness lay in the fact that 
he governed the country by force and never won the hearts of 
the masses of the people. His last years were embittered by 
conspiracies and uprisings against him. He remembered the 
happy rural life on his estate in earlier years and bitterly declared 
that it was easier to keep sheep than to govern men. So 
fearful was he of assassination that he wore under his clothes a 
vest of steel and seldom slept in the same room two successive 
nights. Cromwell met all duties with supreme courage, but his 
health gave way under the crushing burden and he died on 
September 3, 1658. 

Richard Cromwell, son of the Lord Protector, succeeded his 
father in the great office ; but Richard had not inherited his 
father's genius. Feeling himself incapable, he resigned in May, 
1659. The people. were heartily weary by this time of their sorry 
experiment in establishing a republic, and they were ready to 
recall to the vacant throne the exiled son of their beheaded king. 

341. Estimate of Cromwell. — One of the strongest among 
the sons of men was Oliver Cromwell. Through the force of 
circumstances not of his own making he found himself at the 
head of a great government. The power that he wielded came 
to him in an illegal way ; but there is no reason to believe that he 
cherished personal selfish ambitions. Doubtless he would have 
preferred to spare the life of the king and to remain himself in 
obscurity had he been convinced that his country would not 
thereby suffer. 

Cromwell reminds us in some respects of the great Swedish 
king who had fallen at Liitzen but a few years before the English 
civil war began (sec. 324). Both Gustavus Adolphus and Crom- 
well were supremely successful in commanding armies ; both 
were statesmen as well as soldiers, both were men of high personal 
character, devoid of selfish ambition, and were actuated by lofty 
religious motives. In one respect Gustavus Adolphus surpassed 



The Restoration in England 395 

the great Englishman : he refused to permit the massacre of a 
captured enemy. 

In his ideas of rehgious hberty Cromwell was far in advance of 
his age. He believed in individual freedom of conscience. At 
the close of the Thirty Years' War it was recognized by Catholics 
and Protestants that a nation, but not the individual, had the 
right to choose its religion (sec. 325). The Christian world still 
clung to the belief that the people of any one country should 
conform in religious worship and belief. The broad daylight of 
individual liberty of conscience, such as we now enjoy, was still 
far in the future. Cromwell was one of the few men of his time 
to anticipate the conditions of to-day. 

IV. The Restoration and the Revolution 

342. The Kin g and Court of the Restoration. — Amid the 
cheers and shouts of the people Charles II, in May, 1660, entered 
the streets of London like a conqueror. Charles was a man of 
much ability, but he was easy-going, indolent, and immoral. 
The people of England had long been under the austere, strait- 
jacket control of Puritanism. The pendulum now swung in the 
opposite direction. The people imitated their " Merry Monarch," 
as Charles was called, and a season of levity and immorality 
followed such as never had been known in the history of the 
country. 

It is true that there were many faithful Puritans remaining. 
The great Puritan poet, John Milton, at this period wrote 
Paradise Lost, and John Bunyan, from a prison cell, produced 
The Pilgrim'' s Progress. But the way of the dissenters — those 
who did not conform to the worship of the established Church of 
England — was made a hard one. Stringent laws were passed 
against them. Two thousand dissenting ministers were turned 
out of their churches and forbidden to hold religious assemblies. 
Catholics and dissenting Protestants were prohibited from 
holding municipal office, and the ejected ministers were not even 



396 The Period of the Reformation 

permitted to live in the towns. Greatest of all was the perse- 
cution of the new-born sect known as Friends or Quakers, founded 
by George Fox (1624-1691). 

The Episcopal Church was at this time reestablished as the 
state church of England, and so it has since remained. 

343. Charles II and his Parliament. — With the collapse of the 
Cromwellian government it seemed that the whole republican 
experiment had been a failure. But such was not the case. 
It is true that the written constitution and the Commonwealth 
had passed away, but the principle of control by Parliament was 
permanently established. From that time no British monarch 
ever attempted to exercise absolute power, to get along without 
a Parliament, or to tax the people without the consent of Par- 
liament. 

The Parliament elected in 1661, known as the Cavalier Par- 
liament, was harsh toward the Puritans and very favorable to 
the king, but it did not yield the rights established by the civil 
war and the Commonwealth. So agreeable did Charles find this 
Parliament that he kept it in existence for eighteen years. When 
serious differences arose the king tactfully yielded the point, 
declaring that he did not wish to go on his travels again. With 
his later Parliaments he had some trouble. 

One measure enacted in this reign is of permanent and world- 
wide interest. It is the Habeas Corpus Act (1679) : its purpose 
was to protect the people from arbitrary imprisonment. 

The English had two short wars with the Dutch during this 
reign. An important result of the struggle was that England 
acquired the Dutch colony New Netherland, which was then 
named New York after the king's brother James, Duke of York. 

Definite political parties first arose in England in the latter 
part of the reign of Charles II. The heir to the throne was James, 
the king's brother. But as James was an avowed Catholic, and 
as great numbers of the people were bitterly opposed to having a 
Catholic sovereign, a proposed law known as the Exclusion Bill 
was introduced into Parliament to bar him from the throne. 



The Revolution of 1688 in England 397 

The people were divided on this question. Those favoring it 
were called Whigs and those opposing were called Tories. The 
bill was not passed, but the parties continued. The Tories 
favored more power to the king and less to the people. The 
Whigs stood for larger powers to the Parliament and more 
liberties to the people. 

344. The Reign of James II. — Charles II died in 1685 after a 
reign of twenty -five years. His brother James II quietly suc- 
ceeded to the throne, no open protest being made even by those 
who had favored the Exclusion Bill. James had two daughters, 
Mary and Anne, who were the next heirs to the throne. As both 
were Protestants and both were married to Protestant husbands, 
and as the king was past middle age, the people felt that they 
needed only to wait a few years until the crown would again revert 
to Protestant hands. 

Herein they miscalculated. James was very aggressive in the 
matter of furthering his religion,, and he was a firm believer in the 
" divine right " of kings, which meant that kings were superior 
to the law. But he was as tactless as his father, Charles I, had 
been. A little prudence would have taught him to move cau- 
tiously, knowing as he must have known that a great majority 
of his subjects were profoundly opposed to his religion. But the 
king was a stranger to prudence. He suspended the laws of the 
land and substituted his own will. He filled various offices with 
his fellow- Catholics contrary to law. 

345. The Revolution of 1688. — At length the famous trial 
of the Seven Bishops opened the king's eyes ; it came about in 
this way. James issued a " declaration of indulgence," suspending 
all penalties against Catholics and Dissenters, and ordered it 
read in the churches. Many of the clergy refused. .Seven 
bishops wrote out their reasons and respectfully presented the 
document to their king. He was insulted with their audacity. 
"It is a standard of rebellion," snapped the monarch, and he 
ordered that the bishops be put on trial. London was greatly 
excited over the trial (June, 1688). The sympathies of practi- 



39^ The Period of the Reformation 

cally all the people were with the bishops. When they were 
acquitted, the cheers that rent the air spread to the army — 
the army that James had built up for his own protection — and 
the soldiers joined in the cheering. The king heard it and asked 
what it meant. " Oh, nothing," was the answer, " except that 
the soldiers are glad that the bishops are acquitted." " Do you 
call that nothing? " asked the king, who realized that he could 
no longer rely on the army.^ 

About this time a son was born to King James and his 
second wife. The news of the birth of an heir who would take 
precedence over the king's Protestant daughters spread con- 
sternation to all parts of the country, for now it seemed that 
the hope of an earl)'- Protestant succession would be crushed. 
This news, with the affair of the bishops, brought a speedy crisis. 
The leading Whigs and Tories appealed secretly to William of 
Orange, stadholder (president) of Holland and husband of Mary, 
James's eldest daughter, to come and save them from the tyranny 
of their king. William responded and in November he landed in 
England with an army. He was received with wild demonstra- 
tions. The specially trained soldiers that James sent against 
him refused to fight, and the wretched king, utterly broken in 
spirit at last, saw that his people had forsaken him. He escaped 
from the kingdom by crossing the Channel into France. 

V. William and Mary 

346. The Joint Sovereigns. — Mary, not William, was the 
heir to the crown. But William declared that if he was not 
made joint sovereign he would return to Holland, as he did not 
wish to be merely his wife's " gentleman usher." Now William 
was the ablest statesman of his time, and England greatly needed 
him at this moment. When, therefore, Mary declared her 
delight at having her husband reign with her, Parliament elected 
them king and queen; they were William HI and Mary H. 

1 It is interesting to note that one of the seven bishops was Bishop Ken, author 
of the world-famous doxology beginning, "Praise God from whom all blessings flow." 



England under William and Mary 



399 



The two reigned together until five years later, when Mary died 
and left William sole ruler. 

Scotland readily accepted the new sovereigns, but Catholic 
Ireland still clung to the fugitive king. James took courage 
and landed in Ireland with an army. But he was defeated by 
William in the battle of the Bo}me (July i, 1690), and the victory 
is celebrated to this day by "Orangemen" (Protestant Irishmen 
so called from William of Orange) in various parts of the world. 

Two years later Louis XIV of France made another attempt to 
restore James II to the English throne. A large French fleet tried 
to invade England but was met by the English fleet and defeated 
in May, 1692, off La Hogue (ogV 




Battle of 1>a Hogue 

After an engraving from a painting by Benjamin West, an American artist. 
Mary and the English court were so delighted over the' victory that the queen 
sent 30,000 pounds to be distributed among the victorious sailors, on their 

return home. 



347. Famous Acts of Parliament. — In 1689 was adopted the 
Bill of Rights. This has been called the " third great document 



400 The Period of the Reformation 

in the Bible of English Liberties," the other two being the Magna 
Charta (12 15) and the Petition of Right (1628). The Bill of 
Rights enumerated some of the high-handed, illegal acts of the 
reign of James and denied such powers to future sovereigns. It 
also solemnly excluded Roman Catholics from the throne. 

The Toleration Act also was passed in 1689. By this law 
dissenting Protestants (Presbyterians, Baptists, Congrega- 
tionalists, Quakers, etc.) were granted the right of public worship, 
although the Episcopal Church remained, as before, the established 
church, supported by public taxation. The law forbidding 
dissenters to hold office remained in force for man_y years after 
this. But the Toleration Act was a very important step. Eng- 
lish law thus for the first time granted the right of holding public 
services to more than one form of religion at the same time. 

The Triennial Act provided that Parliament should be elected 
for not more than three years. ^ An American Congress or state 
legislature always serves the full time for which it is elected. A 
British Parliament, on the other hand, may be dissolved at 
any time, but it cannot continue beyond the legal time. 

One of the most important laws of Parliament belonging to 
this period was the Act of Settlement of 1701. By this act it 
was provided that in case of the death of William and of Mary's 
sister Anne without heirs, the crown should go to the House of 
Hanover, which was descended from James I (see note, sec. 
321). 

348. Final Supremacy of Parliament. — The reign of William 
and Mary was one of the most important in British history be- 
cause it established finally the supremacy of Parliament. It also 
marked the beginning of Cabinet government, the Cabinet being 
responsible to Parliament and not to the sovereign.- Note the 
steps during this reign by which Parliament became supreme : — 

I. By electing William king and passing the Act of Settlement 
Parliament chooses the sovereign and is therefore superior to the 

1 In 1716 the term was made seven years, and in 1911, five years. 

2 By a responsible Cabinet or minister is meant one that is subject to removal. 



England under William and Mary 401 

sovereign, as when the American people choose a President they 
expect him to carry out their wishes. 

2. Parhament by the Triennial Act made it impossible for a 
sovereign to do as Charles II had done in the case of the Cavalier 
Parliament, or to govern without a Parliament, as his father had 
done. Also, Parliament, by voting revenue bills for the expenses 
of the government for only one year at a time, made the king 
constantly dependent. 

3. Finally, the king's ministers, or Cabinet, came to be respon- 
sible, not to the king, but to Parliament. This was a growth of 
more than a century, but it had its beginning in the reign of 
William and Mary. With the ministers responsible to Parliament 
such arbitrary government as that by Charles I and Wentworth 
(sec. 332) became impossible. In short, Parliament, after a 
hundred years of struggle, became supreme in the British govern- 
ment, as it still remains, subject only to its master, the people. 

349. General Progress. — In this chapter we have reviewed 
in brief space the progress of English history for nearly a century, 
closing with the reign of William III, one of England's greatest 
rulers. Macaulay says that three persons made modern England 
— Elizabeth, Cromwell, and William III. 

William's war on the Continent with Louis XIV of France 
will be noticed in the next chapter. When in 1702 William was 
planning a great continental expedition, he was injured by a fall 
from his horse and died soon after. 

In literature England made no great advance at this time. 
After the passing of John Milton (1608-1674) and John Bunyan 
(1628-1688) the only great name in English letters during the 
second half of the century was that of John Dryden (1631-1700). 

In science the progress was more rapid. Sir Isaac Newton 
announced his great discovery of the law of gravitation, and 
Harvey, as early as the reign of James I, discovered the circulation 
of the blood. To these great steps in science were added many 
minor ones due to the investigating spirit that had its origin in 
the Renaissance. 



402 England under the Stuarts 

Questions and Topics. — I. Give a brief account of the reign of 
the Tudors, 14S5-1603. How did James I come to the English throne? 
What did he mean by the divine right of kings ? Who were the Puritans 
and how were they divided? What was the result of the Hampton 
Court Conference? Describe the Gunpowder Plot. Why did James 
not get on with his Parliaments? 

II. What were the peculiar advantages of Charles I when he as- 
cended the throne? Which is more likely to win success in life, a 
young man who inherits advantages, or one who does not? Why? 
Can you give an example of each? What is the Petition of Right and 
with what great document is it compared? Describe the Hampden 
trial. What effect had it on the people? What was the underlying 
cause of the trouble between Charles and his Parliaments? What 
important religious creed was framed at this time? Do you think 
Charles was justly put to death ? 

III. How did Cromwell justify himself for devastating Ireland? 
Do you agree with him? How long did England remain a republic? 
What is the difference between a republic and a monarchy? What is a 
constitution? In what important respect was Cromwell in advance 
of his age with respect to religious liberty? 

IV. What is meant by the English Restoration? Give an estimate 
of Charles II. What was the title of James II before he became king? 
What state and city in America were named in his honor? What 
caused the Revolution of 1688? 

V. Who were William and Mary? How did Scotland and Ireland 
receive the new sovereigns? By what act did Parliament establish 
its supremacy over the sovereign? What were the provisions of the 
Act of Settlement? What progress did England make during the 
reign of William and Mary? 

Events and Dates. — Reign of James I, 1603-1625; of Charles I, 
1625-1649. The Petition of Right, 1628. Death of Cromwell, 1658. 
Restoration of Charles II, 1660. Death of Milton, 1674. The English 
Revolution, 1688. William and Mary, 1689-1702. 

For Further Reading. — Histories of England by Green, Ransome, 
Gardiner, Andrews, and Cross give good accounts of this subject. 
Firth, Oliver Cromwell and Rule of Puritans in England. Pepys's 
Diary (1659-1665), found in many school libraries, gives vivid and 
interesting pictures of the time. 



THE OLD REGIME 

CHAPTER XXVIII 
FRANCE AND LOUIS XIV 

350. Rise of the Absolute Monarchy. — With the passing of 
Feudalism (ch. XVIII) most of the nations of Europe became 
absolute monarchies. An absolute monarchy is a government in 
which the monarch has complete or absolute power. He makes 
and enforces the laws. The people obey the laws, but have no 
part in making them. 

Under the feudal system there were thousands of petty rul- 
ers, each with his castle, his little trained army, and his domains 
over which he was master. Gradually, after the invention of 
printing and of gunpowder, the feudal estates became merged 
into the greater state, the kingdom (sec. 241). The absolute 
power of the king was most thoroughly established in France, 
while at the other extreme were Germany and Italy, which 
continued under the divided control of many petty rulers. 

The absolute monarchy is not at all to the taste of the American 
people, who enjoy self-government ; but it must be remembered 
that the people of that day were not ready for self-government and 
that the absolute monarchy was an improvement over feudalism. 

351. The Early Times of Louis XIV. — On the death of 
Louis XIII in 1643 his little son, not yet five years old, inherited 
the French throne as Louis XIV. His reign of seventy-two years 
(1643-1715) was the longest in European history. He came to be 
known as the Grand Monarch and was the typical absolute 
monarch of modern times. 

The brilliant career of the great Richelieu had just closed 
(sec. 325) and the Thirty Years' War was near its ending. Owing 
to the part Richelieu had taken in that war the Hapsburg House 

403 



464 



The Old Regime 



of Austria had been humiUated, the Bourbon House of France 
had become the leading dynasty of Europe, and France had 
reached her pinnacle of greatness. 

During the childhood of the young king the government was 
administered by his mother, who was an Austrian princess and 
was known as Anne of Austria. Her chief minister was Mazarin 
(ma-za-raN'), who had been chosen and trained in the public 



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SEA <Si^^'<\<^'' ' {\\ rr^TTTn 

^,^ni^"^\^;^vS-' ' '-,_/' /' '. \ l--.-V-:V-l Acquisitions of Louis XIV. 

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France : AcQxnsiTiONS of Louis XIV 

service by Richelieu. In ability he could not be compared with 
his great master, but he was a man of inventive mind and of 
strong common sense. For nearly twenty years Mazarin and the 
queen carried on the government on the principles laid down by 
Richelieu. At this time the nobles, who had been subdued by 
Richelieu, made a final effort to regain their prestige. But in a 



France and Louis XIV 405 

short civil war, called the War of the Fronde (frond), they were de- 
feated and never again did they give the monarchy serious trouble. 

352. The Brilliant Age ; Colbert. — On tht; death of Mazarin 
in 1 66 1 the young king assumed control of the government and 
even became his own prime minister. He was a profound believer 
in the " divine right " of kings. The English Parliament he 
pronounced an " intolerable evil." The famous saying, " I am 
the State," ascribed to Louis, sums up his ideas of government, 
whether he really used the expression or not. For two decades 
after Louis assumed the government the financial and industrial 
progress of the nation was remarkable ; but it was not due to the 
king, who was of mediocre ability ; it was due to Colbert (kol- 
bar'), his great minister of finance. Only a few of the great 
things Colbert did can be mentioned here. 

When Colbert came into power the revenues were far less than 
the expenditures. The taxes were farmed out as in the case of 
the Roman provinces (sec. 155), and less than half the taxes paid 
by the people reached the public treasury. Colbert changed all 
this. He deprived great numbers of useless office holders of their 
offices ; he reduced the pensions of nobles and courtiers to half 
what they were before ; he deprived thousands of newly made- 
nobles of their titles (which they had. bought) and made them 
again taxpayers ; he greatly increased the revenue and turned a 
deficit into a surplus, while at the same time he reduced the 
land tax by half for the benefit of the farmers. 

Other great improvements were due to Colbert. He found his 
country in its infancy in manufacturing ; he left it one of the 
leaders in Europe. He fostered shipbuilding and foreign trade, 
built many roads, and constructed the great Languedoc (lang- 
dok') Canal to -connect the Atlantic Ocean with the Medi- 
terranean Sea. The industrial system of France to-day rests on 
the foundations laid by Louis XIV's great minister, Colbert.^ 

1 Owing to the increased taxes caused by the wars, which he opposed and could 
not prevent, Colbert became very unpopular and on his death he was buried by 
night to prevent a riot. 



4o6 



The Old Regime 



Next to Colbert the greatest man of the reign was Vauban 
(v6-baN'), who was a mihtary genius. He made great changes 
especially in the fortifying and capturing of cities. It was said 
that " a city besieged by Vauban was a captured city, and a city 
defended by him, an impregnable one." The French army was 




Louis XIV 
From a portrait by Mignard, in the Louvre. 



brought to such a degree of perfection that it became the model 
for all the armies of Europe. 

353. Wars of Loviis XIV. — The brilliant age closed with the 
death of Colbert in 1683. Had King Louis chosen to make his 
life work the perfecting and continuing of the great improvements 
of Colbert, he might have left a great name in history. But he 



France and Louis XIV 407 

chose to make war on his neighbors that he might win a Uttle 
more territory and make a military record. The result was that 
during the last thirty years of his reign there was a gradual 
decline in industry and commerce, while the coming generations 
were burdened with a crushing national debt. 

The first of Louis's wars was against the Spanish Netherlands 
(Belgium) on a flimsy pretext, 1 667-1668 ; but he was thwarted 
by the Dutch Netherlands (United Netherlands or Holland). A 
fierce resentment was thus kindled in the breast of the Grand 
Monarch against the little republic, and he determined to crush it. 
The Dutch fought with great bravery. They made William of 
Orange, great-grandson of William the Silent and later king of 
England (sees. 345-346), their captain general. The remaining 
thirty years of William's life were one long struggle with Louis 
XIV, and it was he more than any other man who foiled the 
ambitions of the French monarch. When a French army be- 
sieged Amsterdam, he drove it away by cutting the dikes and 
letting in the waters of the North Sea. 

At length William formed a great European coalition against 
Louis, and when he became king of England (1689) that country 
also was joined with the coalition. The long war that followed 
(1689-1697), called the War of the Palatinate, was known in 
America as King William's War. Neither side gained much by 
this devastating conflict. It was the beginning of what has 
been called the Second Hundred Years' War between France 
and England, contending for commercial world supremacy.^ 

354. War of the Spanish Succession. — The War of the 
Spanish Succession (in America Queen Anne's War), 1702-17 13, 
was an effort to preserve the " Balance of Power " in Europe.^ 
When the king of Spain died in 1700 and left a will bequeathing 
his vast possessions to a grandson of the king of France, the 

1 It really lasted more than a hundred years. Beginning in i68g, it continued 
to the fall of Napoleon in 1815, with many intervals of peace. The English 
gained control of the sea in the battle of La Hogue (sec. 346). 

^ By the Balance of Power is meant the effort to prevent any one nation from 
becoming too great in the fear that it might become a menace to the rest. 



France and Louis XIV 409 

other powers objected, as this would place the crowns of both 
France and Spain in the hands of the Bourbon dynasty. Such 
power in the same family would disturb the balance and become a 
menace to the peace of Europe. So the war began. 

It developed strong commanders, as the Duke of Marlborough 
of England and Prince Eugene of Savoy' ; and there were a few 
battles of world renown, as the allied victory of Blenheim 
(blen'em) in 1704. In the end the French prince was permitted 
to remain on the Spanish throne on the condition that France 
and Spain should remain forever separate. This yielding of the 
allies was due to the fact that their own candidate for the Spanish 
crown, the Archduke Charles of Austria, had become emperor 
and they were no longer desirous of making him king of Spain. 
But other results of the war, which closed with the treaty of 
Utrecht (u'trekt) in 1713, were of greater importance. 

Great Britain (sec. 330) received Acadia (Nova Scotia), New- 
foundland, and the Hudson Bay country, from France, and 
Gibraltar, the mighty gateway to the Mediterranean, from Spain ; 
all these possessions she still holds. Austria received Naples 
(all southern Italy), the former Spanish Netherlands, and other 
possessions. Holland (the Dutch Netherlands) after this war 
ceased to be a first-class power and has never since risen to 
that eminence. France was greatly crippled by the war and her 
fortunes were at the lowest ebb when, two years later (17 15), 
her aged monarch passed away. 

355. The Huguenots under Louis XIV. — One of the greatest 
mistakes ever made by Louis XIV was his revoking of the Edict 
of Nantes. It will be remembered that King Henry of Navarre 
in the Edict of Nantes, 1598, granted certain privileges to the 
Huguenots or French Protestants (sec. 315). The Huguenots, of 
whom there were about one million, were industrious, loyal, 
harmless people. But King Louis, in the belief that all the 
people should be of one faith, and misled by over-zealous advisers, 
revoked the Edict of Nantes in 1685 and deprived his Protestant 
subjects of all their privileges. It was a stunning blow to the 
EL. M. T. — 27 



41 o The Old Regime 

industries of France, and France in later years paid the penalty 
for the blunder of her stupid king. 

The Huguenot ministers were ordered to leave the kingdom, 
and their congregations were forbidden to follow. But in spite 
of the king's police system, about 250,000 of them crossed the 
borders and " carried to foreign lands the French arts, the secrets 
of French manufactures, and hatred of their king." In the 
armies of England, the Netherlands, and Germany whole regi- 
ments were formed of French Protestants. 

Many of the Huguenots made thfeir way to America, and 
among their descendants were such leading citizens of our country 
as Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, Peter Faneuil (fan"l), and Paul 
Revere. 

356. Versailles. — No monarch of modern times ever con- 
sidered himself more completely lord of the earth, or at least of his 
own people, than Louis XIV. Court etiquette in France was 
intolerably exacting. Everything centered in the king. Great 
lords and nobles considered it an honor to do him any menial 
service. It required seven persons to help him put on his shirt 
when he awoke in the morning. While [sitting at meals or moving 
about his court the king was attended with the utmost pomp 
by his servile courtiers. 

. Desiring an exclusive home for royalty, near Paris but away 
from the turmoil of the great city and the contamination of the 
common herd, Louis XIV built a royal city, Versailles (ver-sa'y'), 
twelve miles from Paris. Here he spent a hundred million 
dollars of the people's money ; hither he moved with his court, 
his five thousand servants, and thousands of other retainers, and 
here amid the splendors of Versailles the elite of France, at- 
tached to a court of " sweated hypocrisy," lived a false, artificial, 
immoral existence, wasting enormous sums of money earned by 
the toiling masses. 

The royal palace built by the Grand Monarch at Versailles, 
containing hundreds of rooms, was the grandest ever seen in 
Europe. To-day it remains, with many other public buildings 



France and Louis XIV 



411 



and wonderful public gardens, a monument of voluptuous extrava- 
gance. It is visited every year by thousands of tourists. 

357. Culture and Progress. — In spite of its blunders and its 
extravagance, the long reign of Louis XIV was an age of progress 
and was the literary age of France. Few other names in French 
literature can be classed with the great dramatists, Moliere 
(md-lyar'), Corneille (kor-na'y'), and Racine (ra-sen'), or with 




Palace of Versailles as seen from the Gardens 

This side of the palace is almost 2000 feet long. The portion seen in this picture 
contains the Gallery of Mirrors, so named from the seventeen large mirrors which 
occupy the side of the room opposite the round arched windows on the second 
floor. It was in this great hall that the Treaty of 191 9 with Germany, ending the 
World War, was signed by delegates representing nearly nine tenths of the popula- 
tion of the globe. 

the philosophers Pascal and Descartes (da-kart'), all of whom 
were contemporary with Louis XIV. 

In many other respects France set the pace for Europe. French 
etiquette, dress, and fashions were imitated everywhere. It even 
became the fashion to use the French language in court circles 
and polite society throughout Europe, and this continued for a 
hundred years. 



412 The Old Regime 

Side Talks 

Louis XrV. — The following is from the diary of St. Simon, a member ot 
the court of Louis XIV. 

" The king's great qualities shone more brilliantly by reason of an 
exterior so unique and incomparable as to lend infinite distinction to his 
slightest actions ; the very figure of a hero, as appeared even in his 
most insignificant gestures and movements, without arrogance but with 
simple gravity ; proportions such as a sculptor would choose for a model ; 
a perfect countenance and the grandest air and mien ever vouchsafed 
to man ; all these advantages enhanced by a natural grace which 
enveloped all his actions with a singular charm which has never perhaps 
been equaled. He was as dignified and majestic in his dressing-gown 
as when dressed in robes of state, or on horseback at the head of his 
troops. . . . 

" Louis XIV's vanity was without limit or restraint ; it colored 
everything and convinced him that no one even approached him in 
military talents, in plans and enterprises, in government. Hence, 
those pictures and inscriptions in the gallery at Versailles which dis- 
gust every foreigner ; those opera prologues that he himself tried to 
sing ; that flood of prose and verse in his praise for which his appetite 
was insatiable ; those dedications of statues copied from pagan sculp- 
ture, and the insipid and sickening compliments that were continually 
offered to him in person and which he swallowed with unfailing relish. 
Hence, his distaste for all merit, intelligence, education, and, most of 
all, for all independence of character and sentiment in others ; his mis- 
takes of judgment in matters of importance ; his familiarity and favor 
reserved entirely for those to whom he felt himself superior in acquire- 
ments and ability; and, above everything else, a jealousy of his own 
authority which determined and took precedence of every other sort 
of justice, reason, and consideration whatever." 

Fight of the French and Spanish Ambassadors in London. — For 
some centuries France and Spain were rival powers. Spain held the 
leadership during the period of Charles V.and Philip II. But from 
the time of King Henry IV of France, 1589-1610, France steadily rose 
in power while Spain declined. Under Richelieu (died 1642) France 
passed Spain and since then has been the superior power. In nothing 
did their rivalry appear more conspicuously than in the unseemly 
broils that took place between their respective ambassadors at foreign 
courts. The worst of these took place in London in 1661, the year 
following the Restoration in England. The Swedish ambassador was 
about to arrive in London. In the procession from the wharf on the 



France and Louis XlV 413 

bank of the Thames to the court, his carriage, according to custom, 
was to follow that of the king of England, and the carriages of the other 
ambassadors were to follow his in the order of their respective nations. 

On this occasion the French and Spanish ambassadors each de- 
termined that his carriage should follow immediately after the Swede's, 
and both prepared for a contest. The king of England, knowing what 
was coming, forbade all Englishmen, under penalty of death, from 
taking part in the contest. A great crowd of people gathered along 
the wharf to see the fight. The Spanish carriage, guarded by fifty 
men armed with swords, arrived at the place five hours before the time 
for the procession and thus secured the best position, but the French 
guards numbered more than a hundred, armed with swords and pistols. 
The fight, beginning on the river bank, continued into the city. Twelve 
men and many horses were killed and about forty men were wounded. 
The Spaniards, though outnumbered. Won a complete victory. 

When Louis XIV, king of France, heard of the affair he was wroth. 
He dismissed the Spanish ambassador from Paris, recalled his own from 
Madrid, and declared that he would make war on Spain if precedence 
of France over Spain were not acknowledged in every court in Europe. 
After some months of diplomatic correspondence Spain yielded all that 
the French king demanded. For a fuller account of this remarkable 
episode, see Pepys's Diary. 

The Man in the Iron Mask. — One of the great mysteries of the 
reign of Louis XIV is seen in the story of the Man in the Iron Mask. 
This man died in the Bastille (bas-tel'), a great fortress in Paris, 
in 1703, after an imprisonment of twenty-four years. During all that 
time the prisoner was never permitted to talk to any one except the 
jailer. Whenever he was seen his face was covered with a black mask, 
which, by the way, was made of velvet and not of iron as popular fancy 
pictured it. It was evident that for reasons of state his identity was 
not to be made known. 

All manner of speculations were rife as to who was the Man in the 
Iron Mask. Some hinted that he was a twin brother of King Louis 
XIV, who thus sacrificed him to make his own title to the throne secure. 
Others thought the celebrated prisoner was a son of Oliver Cromwell, 
and still others with more reason that he was a state prisoner of France 
whose confinement, if known, would cause trouble with some foreign 
country. Many years after his death it was ascertained with practical 
certainty that the mysterious prisoner was an ambassador from an 
Italian state, who, being suspected of treachery, was infamously kid- 
naped and kept in solitary confinement by order of Louis XIV for 
the rest of his life. 



414 



The Old Regime 



Questions and Topics. — What is an absolute monarchy? In what 
way do you consider it an improvement over feudalism? Who was 
Mazarin? Who was Colbert? What great work did he do for France? 
What was the cause of the War of the Spanish Succession? What great 
results came from it? Name some leading Americans descended from 
Huguenots driven from France. Describe the royal city of Versailles. 
Name great dramatists and philosophers of the time of Louis XIV. 

Events and Dates. — Death of Colbert, 1683. Revocation of the 
Edict of Nantes, 1685. War of the Spanish Succession, 1702-1713. 
Death of Louis XIV, 1715. 

For Further Reading. — Hassall, Louis XI V and the Zenith of the 
French Monarchy. Saint Simon, Memoirs on the Reign of Louis XIV, 
and the Regency (4 vols. English, abridged). This is a most entertain- 
ing narrative of the inner court life of the latter part of the reign of 
Louis XIV. The histories of England mentioned at the end of the 
preceding chapter give short accounts of the War of the Spanish Suc- 




Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia 
Minor states not included in Prussia are shown in the map on page 572. 



CHAPTER XXIX 

RISE OF PRUSSIA AND RUSSIA 

During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries nothing in 
the development of Europe is of greater interest and importance 
than the growing of Prussia and Russia into great nations. Among 
the builders of Prussia the names of two men stand apart from 
all the rest — the Great Elector and Frederick the Great. In the 
building of Russia also we find two figures who rise far above all 
others — Peter the Great and Catherine the Great. 

I. Prussia 

358. Brandenburg and the Hohenzollerns. — One of the 

northern German states during the Middle Ages was Branden- 
burg (bran'den-boorK). Its ruler was called an elector because 
he had a vote in electing the emperors. When in 141 5 the old 
line of electors died out, the emperor sold Brandenburg to the 
Count of HohenzoUern (h5-en-ts61'ern), a nobleman whose 
castle was in the Alps. The Hohenzollerns proved to be strong 
rulers. 

Soon after 1600 the elector of Brandenburg secured two very 
important additions of territory, Cleves on the river Rhine, and 
Prussia, later called East Prussia, which lay far to the east, on 
the shore of the Baltic Sea, outside the Empire and separated 
from Brandenburg by a part of Poland. Thus the electors of 
Brandenburg ruled over three widely separated districts. It 
was their ambition to unite them by acquiring the intervening 
territory. 

359. The Great Elector (1640-1688). — Frederick Wilham, 
known as the Great Elector, coming into his inheritance in the 

415 



41 6 The Old Regime 

last period of the Thirty Years' War, found his lands reduced to 
misery by the devastating armies. But he was a man of great 
vigor ; he soon raised an army and drove out the foreign soldiers. 
At the treaty of Westphalia, 1648, he acquired important bits of 
territory, including a frontage for Brandenburg on the Baltic 
Sea. Later he secured the release of the Polish claims on East 
Prussia and thus became absolute master of that section. 

The Great Elector was a good Protestant, but, broader-minded 
than the French king, he welcomed Catholics into his country 
and made them eligible to office. And when in 1685 Louis XIV 
revoked the Edict of Nantes (sec. 355) and thousands of Huguenots 
escaped from the domains of their persecuting monarch, Frederick 
William welcomed them to his country. In a proclamation he 
offered them free lands and utensils for cultivating the soil. 
About 20,000 French Protestants responded and settled in the 
Great Elector's domains. No doubt large numbers of Germans 
are among the descendants of these immigrants. 

The Great Elector was an absolute monarch, but he believed 
himself the servant rather than the master of the people. He 
made great improvements. He built roads and dug canals and 
drained marshes ; he built towns and encouraged industries. 
He made a name for himself that commanded respect over all 
Europe. Oliver Cromwell, through his secretary, the poet John 
Milton, sent Elector Frederick William a letter of friendship and 
congratulation. 

The son and successor of the Great Elector was Frederick, a 
much weaker man than his father. But he is remembered for 
having secured the title of king in addition to the less dignified 
title of elector, in 1701. Soon after this time the name Branden- 
burg began to fall into disuse and all the Hohenzollern posses- 
sions came to be called Prussia. 

360. Frederick the Great and his Father. — King Frederick 
William (17 13-1740), the son of Frederick I and father of Freder- 
ick the Great, was a coarse, rough man, fond of hunting wild 
game and smoking strong tobacco. He ruled his country and 



The Rise of Prussia 



417 



his own household with a hand of iron. He carried a cane and 
did not hesitate to use it on citizens or soldiers or members of 
his family. Sometimes on the streets of Berlin he would strike 
a loitering citizen and bid him go to work. He had a great 
fondness for the tall soldiers whom he called his " blue children." 
He gathered giants from all over Europe and formed them into a 
bodyguard, but was careful 
not to let them get into 
battle. 

Eccentric as Frederick 
William was, he had a solid 
basis of good sense and 
Christian character. He 
greatly cut down the royal 
expenses, even retaining but 
thirty of the thousand riding 
horses inherited from his 
father. In his instructions 
as to how his son should 
be educated we find this : 
"Other men are guided 
toward virtue and away from 
evil by the rewards and pun- 
ishments dealt out by those 
who are set above them, but 
a prince must rely on the 
fear of God alone, since he is 
subject to no human law, 
punishment, or reward." 




Frederick the Great 
From a drawing by Menzel 



Frederick H, the Great (1740-1786), was the most famous 
character in the long line of Hohenzollern rulers. Like the rest 
of his race he was devoted to the upbuilding of Prussia, and 
was not scrupulous in his methods. Unlike his father, he was 
fond of art, literature, and music. Coming to the throne at 
the age of twenty-eight, he inherited a great state, a well trained 



41 8 The Old Regime . 

army, and a large sum of gold. With these advantages, led on by 
a burning ambition, Frederick determined to add to his dominions 
and to make a great name for himself. One of the first things he 
did was to invade Silesia (si-le'-shi-a) , without any declaration of 
war, without warning, suddenly in the winter of 1740. 

Silesia was an Austrian province, jutting like a peninsula 
between Poland and Bohemia. Frederick's twofold object, as 
he admitted, was to add that province to Prussia and to make a 
military name for himself. He did both. In the war with 
Austria he retained the disputed province and became the greatest 
military commander of his time. In a later war he was defeated 
and almost overpowered, but he did not give up. He fought on 
against great odds until his enemies, disagreeing among themselves, 
abandoned the contest and let him keep what he had seized. 

361. Frederick the Great in Peace. — Frederick was more than 
a war leader ; he was a statesman of high rank. Prussia had 
already become a strong state before Frederick came to the throne, 
but he increased its prestige greatly and made it a power of the 
first class. He did everything to encourage the manufacture of 
silk and woolen products, of glass, porcelain, and paper goods, 
and to aid the farmers he furnished cavalry horses for plowing. 
Like his father and the Great Elector, he encouraged immigrants, 
and many thousands from other countries found a home in 
Prussia during the forty-six years of his reign. It is estimated 
that a third of the Prussian people are descendants of immigrants 
from other lands. 

Frederick the Great was a man of prodigious industry ; but 
there was a convivial side to his nature. With congenial com- 
panions he spent many a night at Potsdam, near Berlin, in merry- 
making. At his invitation the great French wit and skeptical 
writer, Voltaire (vol-tar'), joined the merry throng and remained a 
guest of the Prussian ruler for two or three years. Now Frederick 
prided himself on his literary attainments, while the French poet 
thought he knew something of military matters. It is said that 
while Frederick wished to converse about poetry Voltaire pre- 



Beginnings of Russia 419 

ferred to show what he knew about war and statecraft, and at 
the same time each secretly laughed at the other's ignorance. 
At length the two men quarreled; the Frenchman shook the 
dust of Prussia from his feet and returned no more. 

It is a singular fact that Frederick, with all his love of literature, 
could not appreciate the German literature of his time. The 
leading German authors of the period were Goethe (gu'te, 1749- 
1832), the greatest of all German writers, the Shakespeare of 
Germany, a few of whose early works were produced in Frederick's 
reign; Lessing (1729-1781) and Schiller (1759-1805), dramatists 
of high rank; and Kant (1724-1804), the great philosopher who 
wrote that immortal work. The Critique of Pure Reason. 
Frederick the Great admired the French language and literature. 
He pronounced Shakespeare's plays " abominable " and " fit 
only for the savages of Canada," and he accused Goethe of imi- 
tating the wretched English plays. 

II. Beginnings of Russia 

362. Reign of Peter the Great (1689-1725). — The land 
ruled by Ivan the Great (sec. 257) was only the central and 
northern parts of what later came to be Russia. Under his suc- 
cessors the country was expanded ; but it had not yet reached 
either the Baltic Sea or the Black Sea when Peter the Great 
came to the throne as the tsar (or czar) — the Russian word for 
Caesar or emperor. 

The early education of Peter the Great was sadly neglected. 
Like Charlemagne and Alfred the Great, he saw, when too late, 
what he had missed. When he came to the throne Russia had 
no outlet to the sea and the people were far behind the rest of 
Europe in civilization. Peter determined to give his life toward 
securing a seaport and to leading his people to adopt European 
civilization. But first he had to conquer himself, and this was 
not an easy task. He was a strange mixture of barbarian and 
civilized man. His anger was ferocious when aroused. He cut 




420 



Beginnings of Russia 421 

off the heads of his enemies with his own hand. At times he 
would spend a night with the roughest of companions. 1 But 
Peter was a man of sincere motives and during his long reign he 
did much to uplift his people. He introduced European customs 
and aided the church ; he established an army and a navy and 
built schools and factories and cities. It is to Peter the Great 
that Russia is indebted more than to any one else in her history, 

363. Peter's Westward Journey and his Reforms. — In 
order to learn at first hand of the progressive spirit of Western 
Europe, Peter the Great with a small company made a tour of 
Holland, England, and Germany, in 1697-1698. In Holland he 
put on the garb of a sailor and worked for a time in the shipyards. 
In his tour the young tsar studied the manners and customs of the 
people ; he studied printing presses, flour mills, and many kinds 
of factories ; he even took short courses in surgery and pulling 
teeth ; and he hired many skilled workmen to go back with him 
to his own country. When about to continue his journey into 
Italy he was startled by the news that the old Russian army, 
known as the Streltsi (strel'tse), were plotting a rebellion against 
his power. 

Hastening back to Moscow (mos'ko), his capital, Peter took a 
fearful vengeance on the rebels. He put great numbers to death, 
and, as a warning to others, he stuck the heads of hundreds of the 
executed on the walls of the buildings in public view and left 
them there all winter. Within a few years Peter had utterly 
broken the power of the nobility by which the Streltsi had been 
controlled. He obtained control of the church by refusing to 
appoint a successor to the patriarch, who died in 1700. Thus 
Peter became absolute master of Russia. 

In his efforts to introduce European ways Peter extended 
his reforms even to dress and personal appearance. He ordered 

1 On one occasion when Peter was intoxicated he drew his sword to kill Admiral 
LeFort, his closest friend and constant companion. Later he made a public 
apology, saying, "I am trying to reform my coimtry and am not yet able to reform 
myself." 



42 2 The Old Regime 

the men, except the priests and peasants, to cut off their beards, 
and he abolished the long-sl<:irted robes. He stationed tailors and 
barbers at the gates of Moscow to trim off the long robes and 
flowing whiskers of the men who entered. Those refusing the 
royal command were subjected to fines. 

364. War with Charles XII of Sweden ; St. Petersburg. — 
For some time after the reign of Gustavus Adolphus (sees. 323- 
324), the greatest power on the Baltic Sea was Sweden. The 
Swedes controlled not only their own country but also Finland, 
Esthonia, and parts of Germany. In 1697 Charles XII, then a 
boy of fifteen years, ascended the Swedish throne. The neigh- 
boring nations, believing that so youthful a sovereign would 
not be able to defend his possessions, formed a coalition against 
him. But Charles proved to be a remarkable military genius. 
He defeated all his enemies, including Peter the Great. At 
Narva, in 1700, the Russian tsar with 40,000 men was beaten 
by the boy king with only 8000. But Peter was not disheartened. 
He coolly declared, " The Swedes may beat us at first, but they 
teach us how to beat them." Nine years later, at the battle of 
Poltava (pol-ta'va), Peter won a great victory over Charles, 
almost annihilating his army. This victory did much toward 
raising Russia to the position of a first-class power. 

. Meantime Peter had laid the foundations of his new capital 
on the marshy shores of the Baltic Sea, at the mouth of the Ne'va 
River (1703), and had called it after his own name, St. Petersburg. ^ 
Foundations were made by driving piles into the marsh. Whole 
forests were consumed for this purpose and for the erecting of 
buildings. In this arduous toil, says a writer of the time, the lives 
of more than eight thousand men and as many horses were de- 
stroyed. 

365. Peter's Influence ; Catherine the Great. — At the death 
of this masterful ruler in 1725 a tremendous work had been done 
toward introducing western civilization. No European sovereign 
ever left a more permanent impress on his people. There were 

1 The name was changed to Petrograd (pye-tro-graf) in 1914. 



Beginnings of Russia 



423 




Russia : Conquests of Peter the Great and Catherine the Great 



moments of reaction during the following century, but Russia 
to this day has never wholly grown away from the influence of 
Peter the Great. 
Next to Peter the most powerful personage in the making of 



424 The Old Regime 

modern Russia was Catherine II, the Great (i 762-1 796). In 
spite of her serious defects of character, Catherine proved herself 
a ruler of great capacity. She took up the work left unfinished 
by Peter nearly half a century before and even surpassed him in 
fostering Western civilization. She greatly extended the bounda- 
ries of Russia, not only in Europe but also in Asia, and she left 
her country one of the great nations of the world. 

Peter and Catherine were of the Romanov (ro-ma'nof ) dynasty, 
which ruled Russia for three hundred years, until 191 7. 

366. The Partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795). — A map of 
Europe of two hundred years ago shows Poland as the greatest 
country in extent, except Russia ; a map of the nineteenth century 
shows no such country. 

Poland was nearly surrounded, in Central Europe, by Austria, 
Prussia, and Russia. The people were divided into two classes, 
the nobles, of whom there were about a million, and the serfs, 
numbering about thirteen million. There was no middle class. 
The government was in the hands of the nobles, and a turbulent, 
self-seeking lot they were. The diet of nobles elected their king, 
but gave him little power, and as any single member of the diet 
could veto a law, it was seldom that a good law was passed. 

The adjoining nations encouraged disorder and anarchy in 
Poland. They had designs on the land, nothing short of dividing 
it up among themselves. Catherine II, with all her vast Russian 
possessions, looked with covetous greed upon Poland. Frederick 
the Great of Prussia also wanted a slice, for East Prussia was en- 
tirely separated from the rest of his dominions by a section of 
Poland. Mari'a There'sa, empress of Austria, was the only one 
of the three imperial robbers who had a conscience in the matter ; 
but she yielded and took what she could when she saw that the 
other two would otherwise gobble up the whole. 

The first division of Poland took place in 1772, when about one 
third of the country was seized. The Poles then took alarm and 
some years later made many reforms and adopted a good con- 
stitution. But the greedy nations would stay their hand at 



The Partitions of Poland 425 

nothing. The second partition was made in 1793. Then arose 
in Poland the noble patriot, Kosciusko (kos-i-us'ko), who had 
fought for liberty in America under Washington. He led his 
people bravely in the hope of saving his country, but he fell a 
wounded prisoner ; ^ his cause was lost and the remnants of 
Poland were divided among the three powers in 1795. 

Questions and Topics. — I. Who were the HohenzoUerns, and how 
did they get possession of Brandenburg? Describe the policy of the 
Great Elector in building up his domains. When did Prussia become 
a kingdom? Make a comparison between King Frederick William, 
and his son Frederick the Great. For what purpose did Frederick the 
Great invade Silesia ? What can you tell of his literary taste ? 

II. Describe the character of Peter the Great. On what errand did 
he make a tour of the western nations? How did he get control of 
the army? the church? What were- Peter's relations with Charles 
XII of Sweden? Describe the founding of St. Petersburg. Tell the 
story of the three partitions of Poland. 

Events and Dates. — The Great Elector, 1640-1688. Reign of 
Frederick the Great, 1 740-1 786. Reign of Peter the Great of Russia, 
1689-1725. Battle of Poltava, 1709. Founding of St. Petersburg, 
1703. Reign of Catherine the Great, 1 762-1 796. The three partitions 
of Poland, 1772, 1793, 1795. 

For Further Reading. — Schuyler, Peter the Great, Emperor of Russia. 
Bain, Charles XII , and the Collapse of the Swedish Empire. A good 
biography of Frederick the Great should also be read. Short treat- 
ments of the subjects of this chapter may be found in the histories of 
Modern Europe by Hayes, Schevill, Weir, Adams, and others, and 
longer accounts in the histories of Wakeman and Hassall. 

1 "Hope for a season bade the earth farewell, 

And Freedom shrieked when Kosciusko fell." — Campbell. 



•28 



CHAPTER XXX 

FRANCE AND ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 

I. Colonial Expansion 

367. Colonial Expansion. — One of the most notable features 
of the eighteenth century was the expansion of England into the 
British Empire. Great Britain made a long step in the building 
of her empire at the treaty of Utrecht (sec. 354). Later in the 
century she was to expand in the East and in the West, notwith- 
standing the loss of the colonies which gained their independence 
as the United States. 

Tremendous wars accompanied the expansion movements, 
but between the first and second periods of expansion Great 
Britain enjoyed a season of peace under the guidance of one of 
her great statesmen, Robert Wal'pole. 

Spain also, through the discovery of the New World, had gained 
overseas dominions. But Great Britain and Spain were not alone 
in their policy of expansion. In the seventeenth, eighteenth, 
.and nineteenth centuries, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, 
Russia, and later Germany and Belgium acquired vast holdings 
outside of Europe — especially in Africa, Asia, and the East 
Indian archipelago. Europe constitutes about one fifteenth of 
the world's land area, but the European states control more 
than half the earth's surface. 

368. Sir Robert Walpole. — As already noted, the English 
Parliament in its struggle with the Stuart kings gained control of 
the government, and political parties and the Cabinet came into 
existence (sees. 343, 348). According to the Act of Settlement 
(sec. 347) the head of the House of Hanover ascended the throne 
of Great Britain as George I, in 1714. He was a good-natured, 
industrious, corpulent German gentleman who did not speak the 

426 



Colonial Expansion 427 

English language. He soon tired of meeting with his Cabinet, 
whose language he did not understand, and ceased to attend. 
No British sovereign has since resumed the practice. 

The great figure in the reign of George I (1714-1727) was 
Robert Walpole. Becoming premier ^ in 1721, he guided the ship 
of state for many years. Walpole was not made in a heroic mold. 
He was sagacious and level-headed, and sincerely devoted to 
peace. He won his victories by clever manipulation. Walpole 
was in power for twenty-one years, under the first two Georges, 
father and son, and they were years of peace and great prosperity. 
It was the contentment of the people, due to Walpole, that 
established the Georges firmly on the throne and thwarted the 
Stuart " pretenders," son and grandson of the exiled James II, 
in their persistent efforts to regain the lost kingdom. 
0-^69. England Acquires India. — The great central peninsula 
of southern Asia is India, or Hindustan. It is a land of teeming 
populations of many races and many languages. Soon after 
1600 the European peoples awakened to the importance of trading 
with India and the many islands of the eastern seas. The East 
was the land of spices and ivory and grain, of rich fabrics and 
precious stones, including the famous diamonds of Golcon'da. 

Early in the seventeenth century we find Dutch, Portuguese, 
French, and English vessels trading in India and the East /Indies. 
They were rivals and often enemies. After these nations had 
been trading and planting trading stations in the East for more 
than a century the rivalry for India was reduced to France and 
Great Britain. Each country had chartered a great trading 
company with almost sovereign powers, and these companies often 
came into conflict. ^ 

In 1 74 1 Dupleix (dii-pleks') became the French governor in 
India. He was an able organizer and he conceived the plan of 

'The Premier is the chief of the Cabinet (sec. 348), andJience practically the 
head of the government. 

2 The English East India Company was chartered in 1600; the French East 
India Company was chartered in 1664. Each had power to make war and peace 
and to defend its own interests. 



428 



The Old Regime 



establishing a great French colonial empire in India. His plan 
was frustrated by young Robert Clive of the British company. 
After some years of warfare, each side making use of many native 
soldiers, Dupleix was recalled to France ; and with him fell the 
hope of French victory. 




Growth of British Power in India 

In 1756 a native ruler, the nabob of Bengal (ben-gol'), took 
146 British prisoners and kept them over night in a room eight- 
een feet square, with but two small windows. This is known as 
the " Black Hole of Calcutta." Next morning five sixths of the 
prisoners were dead. Clive hastened to take vengeance for the 
outrage. In 1757, at the decisive battle of Plassey, he won the 



Colonial Expansion of England 429 

whole great province of Bengal. Thus he became the founder of 
the British Indian Empire. 

A few years later France withdrew from India and left the 
British to expand their possessions from time to time until they 
controlled practically the whole land. It was a century later, 
however, when the British government took over the control of 
India from the East India Company. The people of India have 
enjoyed far better government under British rule than they had 
before, and much of the great wealth of England is due to the 
rich commerce with the Indian Empire. 

370. War in Europe and America. — At the time when Clive 
was making his conquests in India a tremendous conflagration of 
war was sweeping over Europe and America. In Europe it was 
known as the Seven Years' War (i 756-1 763) and in America as 
the French and Indian War. In this great conflict France and 
Austria on -the one side were arrayed against Great Britain and 
Prussia on the other. It was decided in favor of the latter 
through the surpassing ability of two men — Frederick the Great 
of Prussia (sec. 360), and William Pitt of England, known later 
as the Earl of Chatham (chat'am), who was put virtually at the 
head of the British government. 

Far greater than in America were the military operations in 
Europe, but the results in Europe were less significant than in 
the New World. Here, after a straggling war of some years, the 
decisive battle at Quebec', in 1759, settled the future of North 
America. The vast region called Canada became and still remains 
a British possession. France lost practically all her possessions in 
America, as in India, while Great Britain took an immense stride 
in the extension of her empire. Some years later France took a 
partial revenge by aiding the thirteen British colonies in America 
to win their independence. This came through the American 
Revolution, an account of which does not come within the scope 
of this book. Great Britain, however, was in some measure com- 
pensated for her losses in America by acquiring complete control 
of Australia. 



43° 



The Old Regime 



II. Industrial Progress 

371. Relics of the Middle Ages. — At the close of the Seven 
Years' War there lingered many things to remind one of the 
Middle Ages. 

Feudalism and serfdom had been very greatly modified in 
France and England, although in Germany, where there was no 
strong central government, the condition of the serf was little 




~^L. 



A Hand Loom, such as was used before 1785 



changed. Copernicus (i 473-1 543) had made his marvelous dis- 
coveries concerning the solar system, and Isaac Newton (1642- 
1727) had taught the world the law of gravity. The Renaissance 
had led men to read the ancient classics and to love nature ; 
the Reformation had brought freedom of thought unknown in the 
Middle Ages. Great painters and sculptors, as Michelangelo 
and Raphael, had reached the highest consummation of human- 
art. 

But with all such signs of progress it is an astonishing fact that 
in the middle of the eighteenth century man had made little 



Industrial Progress 431 

industrial progress for thousands of years. His tools and imple- 
ments for tilling the ground were little better than those of 
ancient Egypt and Babylonia. All manufacturing was done by 
hand. The means of travel and transportation had scarcely 
improved since the time of the Caesars. A few great inventions 
there were, as gunpowder and printing, but general progress in the 
industries was yet in the future. This condition was due largely 
to the fact that man had not applied himself to the careful study 
of the natural sciences. 

Then came an industrial awakening quite as wonderful as the 
Renaissance of the Middle Ages. More than one hundred and 
fifty years have passed since, and the spirit then awakened 
is still in the ascendancy. It has resulted in steam navigation, 
the telegraph, the telephone, the automobile, the airplane, and 
thousands of electrical and mechanical machines. Two or three 
inventions of the early period have given to Great Britain 
more wealth than her possession of Canada, Australia, and 
the Indian Empire. 

372. Great Inventions. — One of the epoch-making inventions 
of history is the steam engine. This is merely a machine by which 
the forceful expansion of water into vapor, caused by heat, is 
made to turn wheels. The power is transmitted to all sorts of 
machinery for transportation and manufacturing. In a thousand 
ways this natural force, bridled by human genius, does the work 
formerly done by human muscle or by beasts of burden. The 
invention of the steam engine (about 1770) is attributed to James 
Watt, a Scotch inventor. ^ 

The spinning jenny, invented by Hargreaves about 1765, was 
improved upon later by Arkwright, Crompton, and others, making 
a machine by which hundreds of threads are twisted at the 
same time. This was followed in 1785 by Cartwright's power 
loom. Watt's engine was soon applied to these machines and 
steam power took the place of the tedious methods of hand 

1 Watt improved on a crude engine that had been used for half a century for 
pumping water out of mines. 



432 The Old Regime 

spinning and weaving that liad been in use since tlie dawn of 
history. These great inventions and many others that followed 
made Great Britain for the time the worlcshop of the world. This 
leadership in manufacturing was brouglit about partly by the 
fast-growing commerce tliat followed British colonial expansion. 
The industrial revolution was only in its infancy at the time 
of the political convulsion called the French Revolution, to which 
the following chapters are devoted. After we have finished our 
study of that revolution, we shall take up the industrial revolu- 
tion in a later chapter. 

Questions and Topics. — I. What countries inaugurated policies 
of expansion in the eighteenth century? What can you tell of the 
leading statesman of the reign of George I of Great Britain? What 
powers had the great trading companies chartered by England and 
France? Who were 'Clive and Dupleix? Relate the story of the 
struggle for India between Great Britain and France. What were 
the results of the Seven Years' War in Europe, known as the French 
and Indian War in America? 

II. Can you give reasons for the slow industrial progress during 
medievtil times? What is the principle of the steam engine? How 
can you explain that a few inventions gave England more wealth than 
all her colonial possessions? 

Events and Dates. — Sir Robert Walpole, premier of England, 
1721-1742. Battle of Plassey and founding of the British Indian 
Empire, 1757. 

For Further Reading. — ■ The short histories of England, by Cross, 
Green, Ransome, Cheyney, Andrews, and Gardiner, deal more or less 
fully with the expansion of England. Jose, The Groivth of the Empire, 
treats the subject more extensively and is an excellent work. 



Europe in 1789 



Scale or Miles 



60 100 150 200 -IM 3(10 
«■■■■ Boundarj of the Uol; Romaa Empire 

I I Prussian Territories 

Austrian Hapsburg Territories 




Longitude 



Lon^tude 



10 (I 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 

CHAPTER XXXI 
EVE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 

I. Condition of France 

373. The Government. — France was a typical absolute 
monarchy during the period of absolutism. The king had ab- 
sorbed all power to himself. To carry out his will he had a host 
of agents and officials whom he appointed and dismissed at his 
pleasure. He had entire control of the army, the navy ; he made 
war and peace ; he made the laws of the land and enforced them. 
Over his twenty-five million subjects the king had the power of 
life and death. Taxation was wholly under his control, and the 
public treasury was his private property. During the years 
immediately preceding the Revolution, the king gave away in 
presents millions of dollars a year. 

The king ruled through ministers and these through great num- 
bers of officials. Not only the nation as a whole, but every prov- 
ince and commune in France was governed secretly by the king's 
agents. The governor of a province was called the intendant. 
Often with a cruel hand he wrung taxes from the people, but they 
had no power to protest or even to petition their superiors. 

There was no freedom of speech or of the press. Woe to the 
author who published a book that had not passed the public cen- 
sors. A newspaper was not permitted to publish a word against 
the government or the looting taxgatherers. Nor was there 
any greater freedom of conscience. The Catholic religion was 
supreme. Jews and Protestants were not permitted to hold 
services, and when they did so in secret, they were put to death 
or sent to the galleys if discovered. 

433 



434 



The French Revolution 




French Lady Entering a Sedan Chair 

The sedan chair, used by the upper classes during the seventeenth and eighteenth 
centuries, was carried by two "chairmen." It had side windows, a hinged door at 
the front, and a roof that opened to allow the occupant to stand. It took its name 
from the town of Sedan, France. This engraving, made in Paris in 1777, shows 
the elegant costumes worn by the nobility and their servants. 



374. The Privileged Classes. — The people of France, in the 
middle of the eighteenth century, were composed of three great 
classes, — the Nobility, the Clergy, and the common people, 
often called the Third Estate. Two of these, the nobility and 
the clergy, each of whom numbered about 140,000, were known 
as the privileged classes. 

Only, part of the nobihty were the descendants of the feudal 
lords of earlier times ; the greater number had purchased their 



Condition of France 435 

titles or had been ennobled by the king for other reasons. Many 
were the privileges of the nobles. They owned one fifth of the 
land of France, which was exempt from taxation. From many 
other taxes also they were exempt, but they filled all the offices 
at the king's court and they alone could hold high positions in 
the army. Great numbers of the nobles drew large pensions 
from the treasury and rendered the state no service. They were 
the drones of society, idle and profligate. Among their privileges 
was the right to collect feudal dues from the industrious masses 
and to trample over the fields in their hunting excursions. 

The Church of France owned at least one fifth of the land of 
the whole country, the income from which was very great, to 
say nothing of the tithes collected from the people. All church 
property and the clergy were exempt from taxation, but the 
clergy on occasion voted a donation to the king. 

There were two distinct classes of the clergy. The upper 
class was composed of the high dignitaries, bishops and abbots, 
generally chosen from the nobility, who drew large salaries and 
did little. They lived at Versailles as courtiers of the king, in 
idleness and often in vice. The other class comprised the lower 
clergy, the parish priests, who lived on meager salaries and 
worked faithfully and devotedly among the people. 

375. The Common People. — The Third Estate included the 
middle and lower classes, of whom there were nearly twenty-five 
million. Many of the middle class, composed of merchants, 
manufacturers, physicians, lawyers, and men of letters, were rich 
and intelligent, but they had no voice in the government and 
were not eligible to hold office. It was this middle class that 
brought on the great Revolution. Some of them, like the nobles, 
by bribery or otherwise, eluded the necessity of paying taxes. 

The peasant class, farmers and laborers, were ground down 
with the burdens of taxation. Though feudalism as a form of 
government had almost disappeared in France, peasants were 
still obliged to pay feudal dues (sees. 213-214). Then there were 
the land tax, the church tax, the salt tax, the income tax. 



436 The French Revolution 

and the tariff duties charged for moving goods from one province 
to another, up or down or across a river; or from the country to 
the city. More than half the peasant farmer's earnings had to go 
for taxes, even four fifths of them in some parts of the country. 

If a man neglected to pa}^ his tax a blue-uniformed soldier with 
a gun came to his home, sat by his fire, slept in his bed, and seized 
any money that might come into the house, the soldier's wages in- 
addition to the tax. Many a farmer secreted a part of his meager 
income, and to avoid rousing the suspicion of the taxgatherer, 
lived in a miserable hovel and let his furniture go to rack. 

The nobles had great tracts of game preserves and often at 
harvest time troops of hunters with hounds and horses would 
trample over the ripening fields and destroy the crops. But 
the farmer had no redress. When the hares and deer destroyed 
his young orchard, or the pigeons devoured his new-sown grain, 
he dared not lift a hand against them lest he mar the lord's hunt- 
ing pleasure. The specter of the galleys ^ was always before him. 
He had no rights ; he was a cipher in the government, in society, 
in everything except the paying of taxes. To his excessive 
tax burdens was added another burden. He was obliged to work 
without pay on the roads or other public works from one to three 
days every week. Certainly France cared little for the welfare 
of her toiling millions. 

II. The Great Writers 

376. Voltaire, the Brilliant Writer. — The most conspicuous, 
witty, and brilliant writer in France if not in the world in the 
eighteenth centur}^ was Voltaire. Born in 1694, the son of a 
lawyer, he developed early as a writer. But there was no 
freedom of the press in France, and before he was twenty-five 
years of age Voltaire had spent a year as a prisoner in the Bastille 
for having published satirical verses. Later for another offense 

1 A galley was a low, single-decked vessel. Criminals were sentenced to serve 
as galley oarsmen, chained to the deck. The life of a galley slave was one of extreme 
hardship. 



The Great Writers of France 437 

he was exiled to England, where he spent three years studying 
the language and literature of that country. We have seen him 
also at the court of Frederick the Great (sec. 361). 

Voltaire was a historian, a poet, and a dramatist. The chief 
passion of his life was to fight the Catholic Church. He was not 
an atheist, but the Church in France with its vast non-taxable 
possessions, its dogmatic teachings, and its great influence with 
the people, he believed to be an obstacle to progress. He was 
not friendly to Protestants, but there were few of them in France, 
and he reserved his shafts of subtle wit and satire for the Catholics. 
And though his books v/ere often suppressed and he himself was 
harshly dealt with, his writings had a profound effect on great 
numbers of his countrymen. He played an important part in 
preparing his country for revolt. 

377. Diderot and the Encyclopedia. — One of the great works 
that molded public opinion in France during the forty years just 
preceding the Revolution was the Encyclopedia, edited by Diderot 
(ded-ro'), a great scholar and philosopher. With him were 
associated the famous mathematician D'Alembert (da-laN-bar'), 
and many other scholars. 

The first two volumes, published in 1752, were suppressed be- 
cause some of the articles in them were too free in criticizing reli- 
gion and royal authority. Diderot, like Voltaire, was sent to the 
Bastille for a time. But other volumes continued to appear in 
the years following, and at length, in spite of the protests of the 
clergy, the government withdrew its opposition. The Ency- 
clopedia attacked the abuses in church and state — criminal 
and tax laws, the slave trade, religious intolerance, and other 
things. It played a large part in .unsettling the public mind with 
reference to French institutions. 

378. Rousseau and the Social Contract. — The Social Con- 
tract, by Rousseau (ro5-so' ; 1712-1778), is a little volume which 
has had more influence on human government than any other 
writing of modem times. 

Rousseau, a native of Geneva, was a man of excitable temper- 



438 The French Revolution 

ament and of very irregular and questionable habits. He wrote 
on many subjects — music, education, and others — but it was 
his Social Contract that gave him universal fame, which is un- 
dimmed to this day. It is an essay on government, written in 
a most fascinating style. Its keynote is that no man has an 
inherent right to govern his fellow men, that the real sovereign 
of the nation is the people, and that the people who must obey 
the laws should make them. These principles have been adopted 
by nearly all nations of the earth. The Social Contract became 
the keynote, and its author the prophet, of the Revolution.^ 

III. The Benevolent Despots 

379. Frederick the Great and Catherine the Great. — The 

great French writers noticed above made a profound impression 
not only in France, but in other parts of Europe, notably among 
the rulers of the period. These rulers remained absolute or 
despotic ; they made no attempt to take the people into partner- 
ship with them ; but they made a sincere effort to rule their people 
well and to put into practice some of the new doctrines of the 
French writers. They were known as the Benevolent Despots. 

Among these were Frederick of Prussia and Catherine of 
Russia, both of whom have been noticed in an earlier chapter. 

Frederick the Great refused to share with his people any part 
of his government, but he worked day and night for their welfare. 
He transformed Prussia into a great power and devoted his life 
to making his people prosperous. 

Catherine of Russia, after gratifying her morbid desire for 
place and power, had left a wide margin of energy which she 
sincerely devoted to the welfare of her people. She was greatly 
interested in the French philosophers. She subscribed for the 
Encyclopedia and invited its editor to visit her in her palace. In 
order to put into practice some of the new ideas of reform she 

1 Other great writers of this school were Montesquieu (mon-tes-ka' or moN-tes- 
ke-u', d. 1755), who wrote The Spirit of the Laws, and Beccaria (bek-ka-re'a), an 
Italian who wrote a scathing book against the harshness of the criminal laws. 



The Uenevolent Despots 439 

called a great assembly of the many races and classes of her 
empire to meet at Moscow. Her proposals of reform to this 
body were of a high order, but a war with Turkey broke up the 
meeting and nothing came of it. 

380. Joseph n of Austria (i 765-1 790). Among the enhght- 
ened or benevolent despots of the second half of the eighteenth 
century the best was Joseph II of Austria. An admirer of the 
French philosophers, he determined to put their doctrines into 
practice. Joseph, the son of the great Austrian empress, Maria 
Theresa, was a man of strictly correct habits and a prodigious 
worker. Brushing aside the theory of the divine right of kings, 
he considered himself the servant of his people. Not only did 
he believe in reforms, he also set about putting them into practice. 

Among other reforms Joseph abolished serfdom and established 
religious toleration. He cut down greatly the expenses of his 
court ; he built colleges, hospitals, and factories. He established 
the freedom of the press to such a degree that his enemies could 
publish libels and attacks against him. There can be no doubt 
of Joseph's desire to rule well. But he, like the other despots 
and like the French writers, had not taken into account the deep- 
rooted habits and traditions of the people. In his belief that his 
reign of intelligence would be eagerly received, he put forth his 
best efforts. But society was not ready for such drastic changes. 
They awakened opposition on all sides, and his well-meant efforts 
produced little permanent effect. 

Side Talk 

Cagliostro. — A few years before the Revolution there appeared in 
Paris a very remarkable character who called himself Count Cagliostro 
(kal-yos'tro), an assumed name. He was one of the most successful 
swindlers known in history and has been called the king of liars. Thomas 
Carlyle wrote a biography under the title. The Arch Quack. 

Born in Palermo, Sicily, Cagliostro became notorious in childhood 
for trickery, theft, and forgery, and while yet a youth was forced to 
flee from his native town. Then began his astonishing career of travel 
and deception. He went to Egypt, where, with a little knowledge of 



440 The French Revolution 

chemistry, he made much money by pretending to change baser fabrics 
into silk. Returning to Europe, he married a wife who quickly fell 
into his ways. They traveled over Europe with a coach and four 
horses, visiting nearly every capital and often finding access to the 
highest social circles. They sold potions and charms and pretended 
to heal the sick and restore youth to the aged. They carried a wine of 
Egypt which they sold in drops to restore youth and beauty to the 
old and wrinkled. Both were young and handsome, but they declared 
that they were past sixty, had a son in the Dutch army, and had been 
restored to youth by their own medicine. Their dupes numbered 
thousands, some of whom were among the nobility. One rich cardinal 
yielded himself wholly into the power of Cagliostro. But now and 
then their dupes, whose eyes were opened to the trickery, became 
troublesome ; hence, the charlatan and his wife suffered imprisonment 
in London, Paris, and other cities. In Paris they spent nine months 
in the Bastille. At length Cagliostro, having wandered to Rome, met 
his final downfall. The church authorities had long had their eyes 
upon him. He was arrested, tried, and condemned to spend the re- 
mainder of his life in prison, where he died a few years later (1795). 

Questions and Topics. — I. Describe the French government just 
before the Revolution. How did the king govern the outlying prov- 
inces? What advantage has a free press in any country? Name the 
three classes of people in France and describe each. What special 
privileges did the privileged classes have? What were the game pre- 
serves? In what ways did the masses serve the classes? 

XL What was the attitude of Voltaire toward the church ? In what 
literary fields did he excel? In what way did the Encyclopedia in- 
fluence public opinion? Have you a cyclopedia in your school library? 
What is the most famous work produced by Rousseau ? 

III. What does the term, " benevolent despot," signify? What 
serious mistake did the benevolent despots make with regard to their 
relation to their people? Give reasons why it is best for a people to 
have a part in making their own laws. Give an estimate of the life 
and character of Joseph II of Austria. 

For Further Reading. — Lowell, The Eve of the French Revolution. 
This is the best account in English, in a single volume, of the conditions 
in France just before the Revolution. Briefer accounts may be found 
in any of the short histories of Modern Europe. Robinson's Pleadings 
in European History, vol. ii. 



CHAPTER XXXII 

THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 

I. The King and the States-General 

The great upheaval in European society known as the French 
Revolution ^ was at hand. The Renaissance had brought intel- 
lectual freedom ; the Reformation had brought liberty of con- 
science ; the French Revolution broke the political shackles, the 
royal tyranny of the ages, and brought the recognition of the 
rights of the common man. 

381. Causes of the Revolution. — The trampling of the rights 
of the common people in the dust by the privileged classes, and 
a growing consciousness of the increasing power of the common 
people, especially of the middle class, were among the general 
causes of the outbreak. But there were more specific and imme- 
diate causes. 

The annual deficit in the public treasury had become alarming. 
Coupled with this was the exasperating fact that the frivolous 
privileged classes refused to curb their reckless extravagance. 
Thousands of idle pensioners swarmed about Paris and Versailles, 
drawing their regular stipends from the treasury. The support 
of the army cost less than the pay of the officers. Of these there 
were 36,000 on the payroll and only 13,000 in actual service. 

The American Revolution hastened the crisis in France. The 
French efforts to aid America greatly increased the national 
deficit and thus brought nearer the day of reckoning. More- 
over, the French people were proud of the career of Lafayette 
in America, they pondered the Declaration of Independence, 

1 The word revolution, borrowed from mechanics, means a turning round. In 
politics it means changing from one form of government to another. 
EL. M. T. — 29 441 



442 The French Revolution 

and they rejoiced over the defeat of Burgoyne and the surrender 
of Cornwalhs. All this, not merely because of their hatred of 
Great Britain, which had robbed them of Canada, but because 
of a new-born interest in liberty and democracy. _ An English 
traveler in France declared that the American Revolution had 
laid the foundations for a revolution in France. 

382. Louis XV (17 1 5-1774). — The wars of the Grand Monarch, 
Louis XIV, as noted in an earlier chapter, left France in a weak- 
ened condition. On his death in 171 5 his successor was but a 
child, his great-grandson, who ascended the throne as Louis XV. 
Spending his boyhood with a shameless tutor who led him into 
vice rather than virtue, the unhappy lad on reaching manhood 
was ill fitted to wear a crown and govern a nation. He spent 
his days in debauchery and frivolity, and the nation almost 
went to pieces. 

For having such a king France had to pay the penalty. Dupleix 
with all his talents was unappreciated and was recalled (sec. 369) ; 
India was given up. The valiant Montcalm', the noblest French- 
man of them all, was not properly supported, and Canada was lost 
(sec. 370). The national debt piled high while France was losing 
in all her wars. The thoughtless king had sense enough to fore- 
see the coming storm. He expressed the hope that the machine 
would run itself as long as he lived, " and after us, the deluge," 
he declared. 

383. Loiiis XVI and Marie Antoinette. — Louis XVI, who 
succeeded his grandfather Louis XV in 1774, was a man of cor- 
rect habits and sound morals, but he was a weak ruler. He was 
not wanting in courage ; and his ultimate motive, his sincere 
desire to do the best in his power for his people, was beyond 
question. But he was utterly wanting in the power of leader- 
ship and in the ability to appreciate talent in others. He was 
slow of speech, slow of thought, and neither quick nor accurate 
in making a decision. In person he was short, fat, dull, and 
unattractive. 

Louis had married Marie Antoinette (ma-re' aN-twa-net'), 




Marie Antoinette and her Children 

From a painting by Madame Lebrun, in the Versailles Palace. Marie Antoinette 
was unpopular both at the French court and with the people almost from the time 
of her marriage. The ladies of the court disliked her because she made fun of their 
grand manners. The people considered her frivolous and extravagant. They 
declared that she was nothing but a "foreigner," and generally called her "the 
Austrian." She had four children — two daughters and two sons. The younger 
daughter died in infancy, in 1787; and the older son died at the age of seven, in 
i78g. The younger son, who survived his parents, is shown in the picture as the 
baby on the queen's lap. 



443 



444 The French Revolution 

the beautiful sister of Joseph II of Austria (sec. 380), and daughter 
of the famous Maria Theresa. The two were not well matched. 
Louis was too phlegmatic and plodding to be a companion to the 
gay and girlish princess. She sought her companionship else- 
where, often among questionable characters. The queen was 
no doubt virtuous, but her free and reckless manner in speech 
and action gave rise to many a scandal. Moreover, the French 
queen had the narrowest conception of human nature. She 
knew only the little circle in which she moved. That the common 
people were not utterly sordid, that they might have feelings and 
aspirations, was beyond the comprehension of Marie Antoinette. 
And when the storm broke all these things were remembered 
against her, — and against her husband. 

384. Louis and Turgot. — There was one man in France who 
could have averted the Revolution. It was Turgot (tiir-go'), 
one of the greatest statesmen and economists of his time. He 
was a second Colbert (sec. 352). In 1774, the year when Louis 
XVI came to the throne, he called Turgot to be his chief minister. 
Turgot saw whither the country was drifting, and he laid hold 
on the finances with the hand of a master. 

He reformed the methods of taxgathering, lowered the taxes 
of the peasants, and abolished the forced labor on the public 
highways. Furthermore, he determined to tax the lands of the 
nobles and the clergy, to cut down great numbers of shameless 
pensions, and to abolish useless oihces. Other radical changes 
also this great reformer had in mind when his public career was cut 
short. He was hated by the nobles and even by the queen because 
he disturbed their pleasures. The king had not the stamina to 
resist the clamor against his great minister, who was therefore 
dismissed after twenty months' service. Even in that time he 
had left a surplus of income over expenditure in the treasury.^ 

385. The States-General. — After the dismissal of Turgot 
the old corrupt regime was quickly reinstated. The annual 

1 Later the king called Necker, a rich banker, to manage the finances. Necker 
also attempted to introduce reforms, and like Turgot was forced to retire. 



The King and the States- General 445 

deficit increased alarmingly. The country's credit fell until 
it was no longer possible to borrow. 

In despair the king called an Assembly of Notables, in 1787, 
composed of the higher nobility and clergy. When the distress 
of the country was laid before this body, and it was proposed 
to tax their lands, a howl of protest and indignation arose. The 
notables deemed it a disgrace for them to pay taxes. The assem- 
bly adjourned and nothing was done. 

" The States-General " soon became the cry all over France. 
The States-General was a body representing all France, — 
nobles, clergy, and the common people. It dated back in its 
origin to the Middle Ages. Its first meeting was held in 1302. 
It differed from the British Parliament in that it had no lawmak- 
ing power. The only function of the States-General was to advise 
with the king, apprise him of conditions, and aid him to carry out 
his purposes. For three centuries the States-General met at 
irregular intervals, but when France became an absolute mon- 
archy it was no longer called together. No meeting had been 
called for 175 years. It was the last resort, but the country was 
in distress and the notables with their extensive untaxed lands 
had refused to come to the rescue. Could they only have fore- 
seen what was to happen within one short year ! The king at 
length yielded to the universal demand. He ordered the elec- 
tion of delegates to the States-General. 

386. Meeting of the States-General (May 5, 1789). — All 
France was profoundly stirred by the calling of the States-Gen- 
eral. All taxpayers, even the peasants, were permitted to take 
part in the elections, and they had become thoroughly interested. 
They were also invited to present their grievances, and the num- 
bers presented were amazing. The pent-up bitterness and wrath 
of ages had found expression at last. 

It was clearly to be seen now that the old conditions were 
doomed. In some parts of the kingdom the peasants were al- 
ready refusing to pay their feudal dues, or they were even driving 
the noble hunter from their fields at the point of a gun. The 



446 The French Revolution 

privileged classes quickly saw the handwriting on the wall. Many 
of them were now ready to make concessions, to pay taxes, and 
give up many of their special privileges. But it was too late. 
What a year ago would have been joyfully welcomed by the 
people they now brushed aside unheeded. The people had been 
asked to send their delegates and to present their grievances. 
They had done both and with eagerness they would await the 
outcome. 

Under these conditions, and in the midst of great throngs of 
excited people who had gathered from all over the kingdom, the 
1200 elected delegates of the States-General met at the royal city 
of Versailles. 

387. The Oath of the Tennis Court. — The enthusiasm of 
the expectant multitudes was chilled at the outstart by a painful 
deadlock. The delegates elected numbered about 1200, half of 
whom represented the common people or Third Estate, while 
each of the other orders had 300. The delegates of the privileged 
orders insisted that the three classes meet separately, each 
having a veto on the action of the other two. By this plan every 
measure of reform that the commons might propose could be 
thwarted by the upper classes. The commons would listen to 
no such arrangement. They determined that the three orders 
should meet as one body, every man having a vote. 

Day after day the commons sat in their hall and waited. Five 
weeks passed ; nothing was done. At length, the Third Estate 
resolved itself into the National Assembly, declaring that as it 
represented ninety-six per cent of the nation, the other two orders 
might properly be ignored. This was a bold and revolutionary 
move. The classes were alarmed at this radical action by the 
masses. 

A day or two later the king ordered that the hall in which the 
commons met be closed against them, and next morning when 
the delegates arrived they found the doors locked and sentinels 
on guard. Thereupon these representatives of the people met 
in a near-by tennis court and there took a solemn oath that they 



The King and the States- General 



447 



II 


'ii^' '/ 







The Oath of the Tennis Court, June 20, 1789 
' From a painting by David. 

would never separate until they had established a constitution 
for France.^ 

388. Victory of the Commons. — Many deputies of the clergy 
joined the commons, their sympathies being with the people 
rather than with the privileged classes. Alarmed at the drift 
of things, the king called a joint session of the orders and, after 
making an address with a promise of reforms, commanded the 
three orders to disperse and meet as separate bodies. The nobles 
and upper clergy followed him as he withdrew, but the commons 
sat still. Later the king's agent returned to remind them 
haughtily of the royal command. Then rose Mirabeau (me-ra- 
bo'), who was to prove himself the leading statesman of the Revo- 
lution, and in a voice of thunder said, " Go tell your master that 

1 On this account the National Assembly came to be known as the Constituent 
Assembly. With us it would be called a constitutional convention. The French 
idea of a constitution came from America. Two years earlier, 1787, the American 
federal constitution had been framed; it and some of our state constitutions had 
been printed and widely read in France. 



448 



The French Revolution 



we are here by the will of the people and that nothing but the 
point of the bayonet will drive us hence." 

This was open defiance of kingly authority, — a thing unheard 
of in France for centuries. By this time the city of Paris, but a 
few miles away, was in an uproar. The wrath of the people was 
rising against the king and the upper classes. The king, becoming 
alarmed, at last ordered the nobles and clergy to sit with the com- 
mons in joint sessions — just what the commons had demanded 
from the beginning. The victory was a vital one for the people. 




The Three Estates 

A contemporary cartoon, showing the Third Estate welcoming the nobles and the 
clergy to the ranks of the National Assembly, June 30, 1789. 

389. Fall of the Bastille. — Great was the excitement in Paris 
during the second week of July, 1789. The ruffians and idlers 
of the great city were joined by thousands of vagabonds from all 
sections. The king stationed several thousand veteran soldiers 
near the city to overawe the National Assembly, and it was 
rumored that they were about to make an attack on the unarmed 
people. The better middle class then joined hands with the 
ruffians. They threw up barricades in the streets and sacked 




Storming the Bastille 



The King and the States-General 449 

every gunshop in Paris for arms. The soldiers failed to appear, 
and the maddened crowd spent its fury on the Bastille. 

The Bastille was a great stone fort and prison in Paris. It 
was not a penitentiary, but a prison for state offenders, an em- 
blem of absolute royal authority and of feudal tyranny. On 
this account it was hateful to lovers of liberty. 

The attack on the Bastille was led by a young journalist, 
Camille Desmoulins (ka-mel' da-moo-laN'), who leaped upon a 
table in a public garden and with wild gestures shouted to the 
mob, " To arms, to arms ! " All night, and all the next day and 
night, the lawless crowd surged through the streets. Then 
they made their way to the Bastille, where many arms were 
kept. After some hours of onslaught the garrison yielded and 
the great prison fell into the hands of the mob. They looted 
it from cellar to garret. They killed its defenders and cut off the 
head of the commander and carried it exultantly on a pike through 
the streets of the city. Late at night the king at Versailles was 
awakened from sleep and told of the event. " This is riot," he 
exclaimed. " No," answered the messenger, " it is revolution." 

The fall of the Bastille ^ was a great event in French history. 
It marked the end of feudal oppression and the dawn of liberty. 
To this day the French people celebrate the day of its fall, July 
14, as we celebrate the fourth of the same month as the birth- 
day of liberty. 

When the news of what the mob had done in Paris reached the 
provinces, the people became intoxicated with their new-born 
freedom. In reckless fury they stormed the castles of their noble 
masters, and the masters fled for their lives. Many of the castles 
and many abbeys of the monks were burned to the ground ; others 

1 At the time of the storming there were only seven prisoners found within the 
walls. These were carried in triumph in the procession that marched through the 
city, at the head of the mob. Bits of armor, handcuffs, and chains from the prison 
were flourished also. The key of the Bastille, presented to George Washington by 
Lafayette, is among the treasured relics at Mount Vernon. The site of the Bastille 
is now marked only by a row of white stones. The open square about it is known 
as the Place of the Bastille. 



450 The French Revolution 

were ransacked from top to bottom. Whatever else the peasants 
did, they were sure to destroy the parchments, the feudal titles 
to their little farms. 

II. Work of the National Assembly 

390. Leaders of the Revolution. — A great movement will 
develop great characters. So it was with the French Revolution. 
But it happened that the great leaders were all on one side. The 
royal party developed no strong man. Many of the effeminate 
nobility fled the country. The weak and vacillating king was 
left to cope with forces that he could not master. He was like 
a feeble boatman caught in a mighty whirl of rolling waters and 
overwhelmed. On the other side we find some real leaders. 

The greatest figure of the Revolution was Count Mirabeau. 
Rejected by his own class as a delegate to the States-General, 
he was elected by the people. Tall and masterful in appearance, 
towering above other men, profoundly convinced of his own 
strength, with a shock of powdered hair that shook like a lion's 
mane when he spoke before the National Assembly, he rose to 
every occasion with an eloquence that was overpowering. Mira- 
beau had led a life of dissipation and he had much prejudice to 
overcome. His espousal of the cause of the people was no doubt 
sincere. But he was cautious, never radical. His vision was that 
of a statesman. It is possible that the Revolution might have 
taken a different course but for the untimely death of Mirabeau. 

One of the stanch leaders of the Assembly was Sieyes (sya-yes')i 
who was elected by the commons of Paris and who became a 
champion of the people's cause. Before the election of the States- 
General, he had published a stirring pamphlet and touched a 
popular chord by his triple question, " What is the Third Estate? 
Everything. What has it been so far to the state? Nothing. 
What does it ask to be? Something." Sieyes did more than 
any one else in framing the new constitution. 

Another conspicuous figure was the Marquis de Lafayette. 
Recently returned from America, where he had served valiantly 



• Work of the National Assembly 451 

under Washington, he was well known throughout Europe. 
Though a noble by birth and training, a favorite in his youth 
of the royal family, at heart he was a lover of liberty and he de- 
spised the French system of government. 

391. Renunciation of Feudal Privileges. — The greatest day 
in the French Revolution was August 4, 1789. On that day the 
nobles renounced their privileges. The session of the National 
Assembly continued far into the night. One after another the 
nobles rose and gave up the special privileges which they and 
their ancestors had enjoyed since far back in the Middle Ages.^ 

Amid great enthusiasm the Assembly then passed a decree de- 
claring that henceforth the taxes upon all classes should be alike 
in accordance with their property, and that henceforth all 
citizens, without distinction of birth, should be eligible to any 
office or dignity.^ 

Here in a nutshell is the whole substance of the Revolution. 
Already the king had yielded part of the governing power to the 
people. The equalizing now, on this night of August 4, of the 
rights of the people with the rights of their former masters, com- 
pleted the work — all done within three months of the meeting 
of the States-General. 

392. The Problem of a New Government. — But this was a 
work of pure destruction. The old fabric did not suit the age. 
It had to be torn down, and it was. Now remained the more 
difficult work of construction, of building a great government on 
a new plan. Why should it not be done without violence ? After 
the American Revolution the American people got together de- 
liberately and sensibly and established a national government 
without bloodshed. Could the French do this ? But the French 
were of a different temperament, and were utterly without expe- 
rience in self-government. 

1 The radicals refused to give any credit for this act of the nobles, declaring that 
the uprising of the people throughout the country had already accomplished the 
same thing. 

2 A few weeks later the famous declaration of the Rights of Man was adopted by 
the Assembly. 



452 The French Revolution 

The work of construction was long and laborious and often 
bloody. The nation swayed between violent disorder and repub- 
licanism on the one hand and reestablished monarchy on the other, 
and eighty years passed before it settled into its present form of 
government, which seems to promise to endure. But with all 
the tossings and changes from that time until now the people of 
France have never lost for a day the priceless boon of equal rights 
which had been won in those three months ending on that memo- 
rable fourth of August, 1789. 

393. The Mob Goes to Versailles. — Comparative quiet 
reigned for a time after the abolishing of privileges, but the rest- 
less masses of the metropolis soon again showed signs of disorder. 
Led by violent agitators such as Marat (ma-ra') and Desmoulins, 
they came to distrust the middle class as well as the nobles, and 
to believe themselves the only " patriots." 

Moreover, the crops of the preceding summer were meager, 
the city was filled with idlers, and, in short, Paris was hungry. 
Great crowds paraded the streets crying for bread. There was 
still a profound respect for the king, and it was believed that if 
he knew of their distress he would aid them. 

Goaded by hunger, a great crowd of women set out for Ver- 
sailles (October 5). Weary and haggard, thousands of women 
and a smaller number of men, including the riffraff of Paris, 
tramped through the mud and rain twelve miles to the royal 
city. Lafayette, commander of the newly organized volunteer 
National Guards, followed to keep order, and only partly suc- 
ceeded. All night the howling, bedraggled multitude paraded 
the streets of Versailles. In the early morning the mob broke 
into the palace and would have slain the queen but for the fact 
that some of her faithful guards enabled her to escape by giving 
their lives in her defense. 

Owing to the demands of the crowd and the advice of Lafayette, 
the king decided to remove to Paris. The royal carriage, accom- 
panied by thousands of haggard creatures, was driven to the 
great city. " We have the baker, the baker's wife and the baker's 



Work of the National Assembly 453 

little boy," they cried jocularly, referring to the king and the 
queen and their little son. The palace of the Tuileries (twel-re') 
now became the royal residence. The National Assembly also 
was transferred to Paris. 

The change was most unfortunate, for the lower elements of 
Paris were fast becoming dominant and would soon by violent 
uprisings be able to overawe both king and Assembly. Mirabeau 
foresaw this and urged the removal of king and Assembly to an 
outlying town. But nothing was done, and what he predicted 
came to pass. 

394. Mirabeau. — During the next year and a half the strong 
man in the Assembly was Mirabeau. He believed that the 
salvation of France lay in establishing a limited monarchy. He 
stood for a middle conservative course, being at once the adviser 
of the king and of the radicals. Both mistrusted him and his 
task was herculean. 

Mirabeau made great headway in the difi&cult task he had set 
for himself — to strike a balance and effect a peaceful compromise 
between the royalist party and the wild forces of the Revolution. 
More and more the extremes were coming to respect his judgment. 
But the weight of his labors was too heavy ; he reeled under the 
burden. His life of dissipation had weakened his stalwart frame, 
and this greatest Frenchman of the time passed away on April 
2, 1 79 1. Noisy Paris was hushed to silence at the death of Mira- 
beau, and his funeral was the largest ever known in France. 
Mirabeau 's prophetic words came true, that the monarchy would 
totter and fall and its ruins would become a prey of factions ; 
also, that the Revolution, like Saturn, would devour its own 
children.^ 

395. Clubs and Parties. — The violence of the rabble of Paris 
was increased by the flood of pamphlets and newspapers published 

1 In Greek and Roman mythology, the god Saturn or Cronus was for a time the 
ruler of the world, and the father of Vesta, Ceres, Juno, Pluto, Neptune, and Jupiter 
(sec. 60). To prevent his children from growing up and deposing him, he swallowed 
them all except Jupiter, who was saved by his mother. Jupiter overthrew Saturn 
and compelled him to disgorge the other gods. 



454 The French Revolution 

by the leading agitators, and by debating clubs that sprang up in 
all quarters. Coffee houses and various other resorts became 
the meeting places where exciting questions of the day were vig- 
orously discussed. Two of these clubs grew into political parties 
and became national in scope. 

The first of the radical parties was the Cordelier' party. Led 
by wily agitators, it did much to keep the lower classes stirred up 
against the government. Another of the early parties was the 
Jac'obin party, so called from the building in which it was or- 
ganized. This party was at first more moderate than the Corde- 
liers, but it grew more radical ; it organized branches in all parts 
of the country, and at length, as we shall see, it gained complete 
control of the government of France. It was the mother of many 
wild uprisings in Paris, and of the Reign of Terror. Its most 
conspicuous leader was Robespierre (ro-bes-pyar'). 

The Girondist (ji-ron'dist) party (from Gironde, the province 
from which its leaders came) was of later and quite different 
origin ; it was very important for a time as the most formidable 
rival of the Jacobins. 

396. The Emigration ; the Flight of the King. — In the summer 
of 1789, when it became clear that the masses would prevail 
over the classes in the great French struggle, the nobles began to 
leave the country in large numbers. They made their headquar- 
ters in German territory on the Rhine, and from there they stirred 
up all the trouble they could against their native land. Among 
the " emigrants " were the two younger brothers of the king. 

After the death of Mirabeau the king and queen felt more 
than ever that their personal safety in Paris was endangered. 
Day after day and night after night the lawless mob surged through 
the streets and became more and more threatening. The royal 
family determined on secret flight. At midnight, disguised as 
a valet, Louis XVI with his family escaped from the city. By 
relays of swift horses their carriage rumbled away for many miles, 
almost to the border of France. But being recognized at Varennes 
(va-ren'), they were apprehended and brought back to Paris. 



Work of the National Assembly 455 




Halting the Royal Family at Varennes 

From a contemporary print. The royal family traveled in a great coach built 
for the purpose. The roads were bad, and the traveling carriage was heavy, but 
all went well until, at a point near Varennes, the king put his head out of the window 
and was recognized by the likeness of his features to the profile stamped on the 
French coins. The man who thus discovered the royal flight jumped on a horse, 
dashed into Varennes and roused tTie citizens to stop the coach. A messenger was 
dispatched to Paris, and shortly after, under the escort of members of the 
National Assembly, the royal family was compelled to return. 

The people feared that if the king left France he would raise 
armies against her in an effort to recover his lost power, and never 
again was he permitted to leave the city. 

397. "Work of the National Assembly. — A few weeks after 
the meeting of the States-General, as we have seen (sec. 387), 
the Third Estate resolved itself into the National Assembly and 
took the Oath of the Tennis Court that it would give France a 
constitution. Two and a half years were required to accomplish 
this great work. France fell almost into a state of anarchy while 
the Assembly slowly ground out the constitution. 

As this constitution was in force less than one year it is need- 
less to analyze it at length. Only a few of the main features can 



456 



The French Revolution 



be mentioned. It established a constitutional or limited mon- 
archy ; it retained the king as executive, but gave him too little 
power. The governing power was vested in a Legislative Assem- 
bly to be elected by men who paid taxes equaling three days' 
labor. It formed a government of the middle class. 




Hall of the National Assembly in Paris 

From a contemporary print. The States-General which met in May, 1789, had 
adopted the name National Assembly. When the mob compelled the king to 
move to Paris from Versailles the Assembly followed and convened in a hall near 
the Tuileries. From the spea,ker's rostrum at the right of the picture the Assembly 
was addressed at various times by the leaders of the Revolution, including Lafayette 
and Mirabeau. The mob filled the galleries, hissing or applauding the speakers. 
Those who could not crowd inside stood without and were informed by signals from 
the windows of what was going on within. 



The royal party was displeased because the king was made 
little more than a figurehead ; the lower classes were displeased 
because a property test excluded at least a million men from 
the ballot. Above all, the Catholic Church was displeased. 
The National Assembly seized all the church lands in France and 



Work of the National Assembly 457 

provided that the clergy be paid their salaries out of the public 
treasury. It also required that the clergy take an oath of fidelity 
to the new constitution. Great numbers of them could not do 
this conscientiously and they refused. Henceforth there was 
strife between the church and the forces of the Revolution. 

But the National Assembly did some things of great and per- 
manent importance. It obliterated the old province boundaries 
and divided France into eighty-three departments ; and it equal- 
ized taxes. ^ 

The new constitution completed, the National Assembly dis- 
solved, September 30, 1791, and was succeeded by the newly- 
elected Legislative Assembly. The new government began aus- 
piciously. The absolute monarchy had been changed to a 
limited one. Many believed that the Revolution was over, but 
in reality only the first phase of it had closed. 

Side Talk 

The Diamond Necklace. — The affair of the diamond necklace, appar- 
ently trivial, played its part in bringing about the French Revolution. A 
man named Boehmer, the crown jeweler, knowing that Queen Marie 
Antoinette was very fond of costly jewelry, made a beautiful necklace of 
the most expensive jewels that could be found in Europe and tried to sell 
it to her. Its price was $320,000. But the queen, who had become a 
mother, took great interest in her children and now cared less for jewelry 
than before. Knowing also that the people criticized her for spending too 
much money for finery, she refused to buy the necklace. 

At this time Cardinal de Rohan (ro-aN'), a man of shallow mind and 
dissolute life, hovered around the French court, but did not enjoy the 
royal favor. It seems that he, in company with a woman named La 
Motte, as dissolute as himself, formed a plot to deceive the jeweler by 
making him believe that the queen had asked them to secure the necklace 
for her and to give him her notes signed by her own hand, the payment to 
be made later. Thus the cardinal and the La Motte woman secured the 
necklace. They tore it to pieces and sold the jewels for large sums of money. 

When Boehmer attempted to collect his money from the queen he dis- 

■■ Before the Revolution taxes were very much higher in some provinces than in 
others. Most of the new departments were named after rivers and mountains. 
To the present they remain as the National Assembly fixed them, with few exceptions. 
EX.. M. T. — 30 



458 The French Revolution 

covered that she had never purchased the necklace and that the notes he 
held were pure forgeries. The cardinal and his accomplice were brought 
to trial and both were obliged to flee from France. 

The scandal became the talk of the town in every village and hamlet in 
France, and every court of Europe. There is scarcely a doubt that Marie 
Antoinette was entirely innocent ; but her enemies spread the story that 
she had conspired to obtain the necklace in this fraudulent way and then 
to refuse to acknowledge her signature to the notes. A great many people 
believed this, and the belief no doubt had something to do with weakening 
the monarchy and hastening the Revolution. 

Questions and Topics. — I. What great change came to the world 
through the Renaissance? the Reformation? the French Revolu- 
tion? Name some causes of the deficit in the French treasury. De- 
scribe the character of Louis XV ; of Louis XVI ; of Marie Antoinette. 
Why was not Turgot given a free hand in reforming the government? 
What reforms did he succeed in bringing about? Give the early history 
of the States-General. Why did the king call it to meet in 1789? In 
what way did it differ from the British Parliament? Describe the 
taking of the Oath of the Tennis Court; the fall of the Bastille. 

II. Who were the leaders of the Revolution? Why is August 4, 
1789, a significant date? What did you learn in your American history 
about Lafayette? Who was Mirabeau? Describe the clubs and par- 
ties; emigration of the nobles; the flight of the king. Describe the 
work of the National Assembly. What is meant by equalizing taxes? 

Events and Dates. — Meeting of the States- GeneraL and beginning 
of the Revolution, 1789. Fall of the Bastille, July 14, 1789 (French 
national holiday). Death of Mirabeau, 1791. 

For Further Reading. — Every school library should have one or 
two histories of the French Revolution. Among the best are Stephens, 
History of the French Revolution, 2 vols. ; Taine, The French Revolution, 
3 vols, translated from the French, and shorter accounts by Fyffe in 
his History of Modern Europe, and Mathews, French Revolution. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 

FALL OF THE MONARCHY; FIRST FRENCH REPUBLIC 

I. The Legislative Assembly, October i, 1791, to Septem- 
ber 20, 1792 

398. A New Set of Leaders. — At a foolish moment of self- 
denial the National Assembly had voted that none of its members 
should be eligible to the new Assembly that was to carry the 
constitution into effect. The 745 members of the new Legisla- 
tive Assembly, therefore, were without experience, mostly young 
lawyers and journalists, burning with enthusiasm but ill-fitted 
for the great work that was before them. Almost from the begin- 
ning it was. clear that this body opposed the retaining of the 
monarchy, even the limited monarchy that the constitution had 
set up. The Assembly divided into political parties, and the 
two most powerful, the Girondist and the Jacobin parties, both 
were in favor of abolishing the monarchy and setting up a republic. 

The revolution thus far accomplished was mild in comparison 
with the violent and bloody one that was to follow. As to leader- 
ship, Mirabeau was dead, Sieyes was pushed aside and shelved. 
Lafayette found himself out of harmony with the new spirit 
and his influence gorie. The most conspicuous leaders of the 
second Revolution were Robespierre, Marat, and Dan ton (daN- 
toN') , all of whom were destined to meet a violent death within 
the coming three years. 

Robespierre was a " dapper little lawyer " who won great 
popularity and for a time was the idol of the nation. Marat had 
been a physician. He became a violent revolutionist, published 
a newspaper, and inflamed the lower classes to madness by his 
vicious editorials. 

459 



460 The French Revolution 

Dan ton, next to Mirabeau, was the greatest figure of the Revo- 
lution. Powerful, eloquent, and gifted with the qualities of leader- 
ship, Danton was a constructive statesman of high order and 
deserved to be called the Mirabeau of the second phase of the 
Revolution. 

399. War with Austria and Prussia. — The runaway nobles 
along the Rhine, led by the two brothers of the king, did all in 
their power to engage foreign armies against France. Exasper- 
ated at this and at the menacing attitude of Austria, the French 
Assembly declared war against that country on April 20, 1792. 
An alliance between Austria and Prussia brought the latter country 
into the war also. 

King Louis signed the declaration of war because he knew that 
a refusal would have brought a revolt such as had never before 
been known. But one can imagine how humiliating it must have 
been, for at this time he was secretly encouraging the Austrians to 
come and rescue him from the prison of his own capital. 

As the summer approached an Austro- Prussian army crossed 
the French frontier and marched toward Paris. Leading the 
invasion was the Duke of Brunswick, an old commander of Fred- 
erick the Great. In July the duke issued a proclamation to the 
people of France declaring that he came to put an end to the 
anarchy and to restore the king to his rightful powers, — that 
he would punish with death all taken with arms in their hands, 
and if King Louis were injured, the city of Paris would be given 
over to destruction. 

400. Fall of the Monarchy. — Instead of being cowed by this 
insolent proclamation, the people of Paris broke into furious and 
uncontrollable passion. Stung to madness by their belief that 
the king was in league with the invading foe, the people demanded 
that he be dethroned. From Marseilles (mar-salz') on the 
Mediterranean Sea came 500 men, dragging their cannon through 
the July dust for hundreds of miles. They entered Paris singing 
a new revolutionary hymn, that most stirring of national songs, 
the Marseillaise (mar-se-laz'), and demanded the dethronement 



The Legislative Assembly 461 

of the king. On August 10, 1792, came the crisis, a memorable 
day in the French Revolution. The radicals, having seized the 
city government, determined to stir up an insurrection. 

All through the night preceding, the bells of Paris, rung by 
Jacobin hands, sent out their peals. From the slums and from 
every section of the city multitudes came, arming themselves 
with pikes and muskets. In the early morning the mobs gathered 
about the palace of the Tuileries, the dwelling place of the royal 
family since their removal from Versailles. King Louis might 
have saved his throne and made a great name for himself that 
day. He had 1500 Swiss guards and many other defenders, 
thoroughly trained, faithful to his orders and well posted, about 
the palace. But Louis was utterly wanting in the powers of 
leadership. Having taken refuge with the Legislative Assembly 
in a near-by hall, he wrote an order that his defenders should 
not fire on the besieging crowds. It was a stupid and tragic 
blunder. At the first onset the Swiss drove back the insurgents 
with a deadly volley. The mob came again, but the Swiss had 
now received the order not to fire. The infuriated multitude, 
knowing nothing of the king's order, struck down the noble Swiss 
in their tracks or hunted them to death as they were trying to 
escape. The Swiss were massacred almost to the last man. 

All day the king sat in the Assembly chamber. He heard 
the roar of the cannon and the shrieks of his dying guards with- 
out. He heard also the debate on the motion that he be sus- 
pended from his great office as king of France, and witnessed its 
final passage by a unanimous vote. The mob had overawed the 
Assembly. The Duke of Brunswick had received his answer. 

401. Dumouriez Checks the Invasion. — Never in history 
had a people risen more grandly than the French now rose to 
beat back the invaders of their country. At their head was the 
superb figure of Danton. Day and night he labored to rouse the 
people and equip the armies. To the Assembly he shouted with 
the dashing splendor of Mirabeau, " Our country is in danger," 
and " to dare and dare and dare again, alone will save it." 



462 The French Revolution 

Dumouriez (dii-moo-rya') was the commanding general. With 
a badly equipped, half-trained army he marched against the 
invaders. The French were successful. They turned back the 
invaders and took several German towns on the Rhine. Later 
Dumouriez occupied the southern Netherlands (now Belgium), 
then a possession of Austria. The rejoicing in France was great, 
not only for the delivery of the country, but also because of the op- 
portunity to carry the principles of the Revolution to foreign lands. 

402. The September Massacres. — Meantime an atrocious 
crime had been committed in Paris. In the fear that there would 
be a royalist uprising in Paris after the strong men had gone to 
the war, great numbers of royalists and priests had been thrown 
into prison on suspicion. To terrify the royalist party and to 
secure more room in the crowded prisons the leaders of the city 
government of Paris, called the Commune, decided on a cold- 
blooded massacre (September, 1792). With the merest sham of 
a trial, hundreds of men and women were slain by assassins at 
the prison doors. It is a dark page in the story of the Revolution 
— the shocking tale of these September massacres. But they had 
the intended effect. The royalist party was completely subdued. 

II. The National Convention ; the Reign of Terror 

403. Birth of the Republic and Death of the King. — When 
the king was suspended in August, 1792, the constitution under 
which he reigned fell with him. The Legislative Assembly there- 
upon provided that a new body be elected to draft a new consti- 
tution and to govern the country at the same time. This body 
was called the National Convention. 

The Convention, composed of about eight hundred men, was 
entirely hostile to the monarchy, and its first act was to depose 
the suspended king and proclaim France a republic. This first 
French Republic dates from September 22, 1792, which was 
reckoned as the first day of the Year One.^ 

1 These ardent enthusiasts were so eager to obliterate the past that they began 
a new reckoning of time. They also divided the year into twelve months of 30 



The Convention 463 

How to dispose of the king was one of the hard problems that 
came before the Convention. He and his family had been kept 
close prisoners since August 10. To retain him indefinitely in 
prison would not be feasible, and it might give rise to endless 
intrigues of his friends. To banish him from the country would 
be to invite such troubles as the half century of annoyances to 
which England had been subjected by the Stuart pretenders 




Guillotine in the Square before the Hotel de Ville 
Illustration from a contemporary newspaper. 

(sec. 368). The ardent republicans believed that Louis should 
be put to death for treason, as it was known that he had secretly 
encouraged the enemies of France to invade the country. 

The fallen monarch was therefore tried by the Convention on 
a charge of treason. He was pronounced guilty and by a small 
majority was condemned to death. On January 21, 1793, Louis 
was put to death by means of the guillotine (gil'o-ten), a newly 
invented machine for cutting off heads. He died bravely. In 
the following October, the widowed queen, Marie Antoinette, 
condemned for the same offense by a Revolutionary Tribunal, 

days each, the remaining five days being made holidays ; they divided each month 
into three weeks of ten days each, every tenth day being a rest day. 



464 The French Revolution 

mounted the scaffold and with equal fortitude suffered the fate of 
her husband.^ 

404. The First Coalition. — Monarchist Europe was stirred to 
wrath by the beheading of Louis XVI. To punish the regicides 
and to prevent the further spread of republicanism, a great coali- 
tion of the European powers was formed against France. Even 
Great Britain joined the enemies of the new-born republic. The 
allied rulers actually contemplated the partitioning of France 
and dividing up large sections of it among themselves. 

Now again French patriotism rose to heroic heights. As 
vigorous and immediate action was required, a Committee of 
Public Safety was created by the Convention and given almost 
unlimited powers. Lafayette had fled to Austria, and Dumouriez, 
disapproving the execution of the king, had deserted to the enemy. 
New generals were soon found and within a few months they had 
under arms at least three quarters of a million men. The organ- 
izer of this force was Lazare Carnot (la-zar' kar-no'), one of the 
strong men of the time. The Allies began to move upon France, 
but not with the expected vigor. Some of them at this moment 
were more interested in the second partition of Poland (sec. 366). 
The French armies were generally successful, and by the end of 
the year 1793 all danger from the First Coalition had passed. 

405. The Mountain Crushes the Girondists. — The Convention 
divided into hostile parties. One of these, the Girondist party, 
had done much toward overthrowing the monarchy and setting 
up the republic. But the leading Girondists, though splendid 
orators, were too theoretical and philosophic at a moment of 
public danger when action was necessary. They enjoyed debate 
rather than action. 

The Mountain was a more radical and violent party, so called 
because its members — mostly Jacobins — occupied the upper 

1 The royal pair left two children, a boy of seven, named Louis, the Dauphin 
or heir to the throne, who died because of the cruel treatment of his jailers, and 
a girl named Marie Therese Charlotte, older, who was released a few years later 
and lived to old age. She was known as Madame Royale. 



The Reign of Terror 465 

tiers of seats in the Convention hall. At first the Mountain was 
in a hopeless minority in the Convention. But at its back were 
the rabble and all the violent elements of Paris, also the Paris 
commune or city governing body. Why not invoke the Paris 
mob against their enemies? On various occasions in the over- 
throw of the monarchy the mob had played a leading part. Why 
should it not be equally potent in overthrowing the Girondists? 
So thought the Jacobins, and on this idea they acted. The mob 
of Paris was again stirred to fury. On June 2, 1793, all the 
fanatical elements of the great city surrounded the Convention 
hall and frantically demanded that the Girondists be expelled 
from the Convention. Again the mob was successful and about 
thirty of the leading Girondists were placed under arrest ; many 
of them later were put to death. 

This violent method of the radicals in triumphing over the 
more moderate party awakened a fierce resentment in the various 
parts of France. In La Vendee (la-vaN-da'), Bordeaux (bor-do'), 
Ly'ons, and Toulon (too-loN') the people rose in revolt, but were 
put down with a ruthless hand. At Toulon the city was subdued 
by the skill of a young artillery ofiicer, hitherto unknown, but 
destined to become the most conspicuous man in French history 
in a thousand years — Napo'leon Bo'naparte. 

406. The Terror at its Height. — The most revolting feature 
of the French Revolution was the Terror, which lasted about 
ten months — from September, 1793, to July of the next year.^ 

It seemed that the French nation had gone mad. The Jacobins 
composing the Mountain became uncontrollably and fanatically 
radical. No one can reason with a fanatic. The Jacobins passed 
beyond the reasoning point. They imagined plots against the 
Revolution on all sides. They passed the Law of the Suspects 
by which any one could be imprisoned on mere suspicion. Thus 
thousands of people were sent to prison for no crime, except that 
they were supposed to sympathize with the royalists. 

1 This is often called the Long Terror, the Short Terror being the September 
massacres of the preceding year (sec. 402). 



466 



The French Revolution 



When the prisons became crowded, they were emptied by the 
Revolutionary Tribunal, a kind of court created to try the pris- 
oners. But so many were the victims brought before this tribunal 
that it could give them no real trial. They had no chance of 
self-defense. Hundreds were condemned to death by the mere 

reading of their names be- 
fore the tribunal. 

In the heart of the city 
was the Square of the Revo- 
lution, and there stood the 
ghastly guillotine. To this 
bloody ground the hapless 
victims, men and women of 
high and low degree, were 
brought in crowds day after 
day, and in the midst of a 
hooting, staring crowd of 
idlers, their heads were 
rolled into the basket. 
Among the victims was 
Madame Roland (ro-laN'), 
a woman of fine mind and 
of noble qualities. She was 
an ardent republican, but 
she had displeased the 
Jacobins and her fate was 
sealed. While on her way to the place of execution, she passed 
a statue of liberty and looking at it exclaimed, " Oh, Liberty, 
what crimes are committed in thy name ! " ^ 

407. Marat and Charlotte Corday. — One of the wildest of the 
fanatics was Dr. Marat, formerly a phj^sician, now an inciter of 
mob violence by means of a newspaper. He seemed to prefer 
mob rule to law and order. Nothing was too violent for this 
sometime doctor, and no amount of bloodshed seemed to glut his 

1 Dickens's Tale of Tivo Cities will be found very interesting in this connection. 




MaDAMK R()],AM) o.\ II1,R W ,\\ T( 

Execution 
From a painting by Royer. 



The Reign of Terror 467 

savage vengeance. It was chiefly due to him that the patriotic 
Girondists were hounded to their deatli. 

In the province of Normandy there was a beautiful and noble- 
minded girl named Charlotte Corday (kor-de'). Deeply grieved 
at the horrors of the guillotine in Paris, and believing that Marat 
was the soul of the Terror and the chief cause of the bloodshed, 
she reached a heroic resolution — she would go to Paris and save 
her country by killing Marat. With a concealed dagger she 
sought and obtained entrance into his house and stabbed him to 
death. A few days later the girl-assassin paid the penalty of 
her crime at the guillotine. 

The death of Marat did not stop the Terror nor aid the re- 
maining Girondists ; but if ever there was an assassin whom the 
world has forgiven, it was Charlotte Corday. 

408. Death of Danton. — The two great leaders in France at 
this period were Danton and Robespierre. Both were sincere 
men, upright and intensely anxious to regenerate France and 
make it the model of the world. Both belonged to the party 
composing the Mountain, and in common they believed that the 
free use of the guillotine was necessary to rid the country of a 
class that would plot against the republic if they could. Danton 
was the more powerful and the more admirable of the two. As 
minister of justice he proved himself one of the leading statesmen 
in French history. 

Robespierre was a smaller man in mind and body. He became 
an idol of the people, but was never popular in the Convention. 
On two occasions while speaking before the Convention he was 
imnerved by the hooting of his enemies, when Danton came to 
his rescue. " Go on," rose the deep, rich voice of the orator, 
"Go on, Robespierre, there are many good citizens here to listen." 

Soon came a change. Danton grew weary of bloodshed. 
Believing that the Revolution needed to be sustained no longer 
by the guillotine, he gave his voice for moderation. This did 
not please the radicals, who still thirsted for blood. Many of 
them were enemies of Danton and they made his change of heart 



468 The French Revolution 

a pretext to attack him. On various flimsy charges this titanic 
leader who had saved France (sec. 401) was arrested, was given 
a farcical trial and condemned to death, and with him perished 
the witty, brilliant Camille Desmoulins, who had also joined 
the moderates. 

409. Death of Robespierrre ; End of the Terror. — Robespierre 
was not the leader in the destruction of his great friend, Danton, 
but he could have prevented it and did not. He approved it and 
aided in bringing it about. Why Robespierre took this position 
is scarcely known. Perhaps he was jealous of the great name 
Danton had made and wished to be rid of his only formidable rival ; 
perhaps Robespierre saw that the Terror would surely continue 
for a time and wished to be on the popular side. 

As Danton was passing the home of Robespierre while being 
carted to the guillotine, he shouted in a powerful voice, " You 
will soon follow us ! " 

Robespierre was now the leading man in France. He had 
sent Danton to his death and also a gang of atheists who had made 
a bitter fight on the Catholic churches of Paris. He led the 
Convention to affirm that the French people recognized a Supreme 
Being, in whose honor he held a solemn festival, himself acting 
as the high priest. Meantime the Terror went on at a more 
rapid pace ; the victims of the guillotine in six weeks, June and 
July, 1794, numbered 1356. 

Robespierre, contrary to popular belief, was not the chief 
instigator of this slaughter. The fact that it ceased with his 
death makes it difficult to undo this popular error. There is 
ample evidence that he wanted it to be stopped, but could not 
control the men who desired it to go on, and it is certain that 
Robespierre was survived by many men far more blood-guilty 
than himself. In July, 1794, he was overwhelmed by his enemies 
and sent to his death. Surely the Revolution, like Saturn, was 
devouring its own children. 

The Terror ceased, not because of the fall of Robespierre, but 
because the public mind was revolting against it and would 



The Convention 469 

tolerate it no longer. The vilest of the men who had carried 
it on now saw the turn of the tide and promptly cast all the 
odium on the head of the dead Robespierre. The nation returned 
to a state of sanity and order. 

410. Constitution of the Year III. — The Convention busied 
itself with many things. One thing of permanent value that 
it did was to adopt the metric system of weights and measures, 
which has gone into use in many parts of the world. The great 
work of the Convention was to frame a new constitution. This 
was finished in the fall of 1795, the third year of the republic, 
and was called the Constitution of the Year III. By this a new 
government was created, known as the Directory because the 
executive power was placed in the hands of five Directors. Under 
the first constitution the Legislative Assembly or parliament 
consisted of one house ; under this second constitution there were 
two houses, the lower house being called the Council of Five 
Hundred and the upper one the Council of the Ancients. 

The terror of the guillotine having ceased, the enemies of the 
Convention again raised their heads. The royalists stirred up 
an attack on October 5, 1795, but it was repulsed with the slaughter 
of hundreds. The defense of the Convention was in the hands of 
young Bonaparte, whom we have seen at Toulon (sec. 405). A 
few weeks later the life of the Convention came to an end 
(October 26) and the government of the Directory came into being. 

411. Passing of the High Tide. — With the adjournment of the 
Convention in the autumn of 1795, the high tide of the Revolu- 
tion had passed. A backward glance will show much disorder 
and bloodshed. It will reveal to us again the bitter hatred be- 
tween the masses and the classes, the murderous rising of the 
lawless mob, the execution of a king and queen whose personal 
characters deserved respect. We note also a wave of irreverent 
atheism sweep over the land, the destruction of old landmarks, 
churches and castles, and the slaying of many innocent men and 
women. Finally we see the leaders, in their frenzied zeal for 
reform, turning upon and slaying one another. 



470 



The French Revolution 



Many of the reforming zealots were men of high personal char- 
acter, and though they lost their heads and ordered wholesale 
executions, they abhorred the practice of the Middle Ages of 
torturing their victims and burning them at the stake. 

During the six years since the meeting of the States-General, 
France had been regenerated through her baptism of blood. 

The common people 
had been awakened to 
a sense of their rights 
and responsibilities ; 
thousands of square 
miles of hunting lands 
had been changed into 
farms and gardens, and 
a universal system of 
education, the first ever 
known in France, had 
been established. 

412. Results of the 
Revolution. — Deeply 
as we deplore the ex- 
cesses of the French 
Revolution, the wild 
disorder and the Reign 
of Terror, we must not 
overlook the fact that 
it was the beginning 
of momentous changes of the most far-reaching importance. The 
principle of the Revolution, democracy, has spread in nearly all 
countries. Nothing in modern history is of more importance 
than the growth of democracy in Europe. In 1789 England had 
already worked out partial self-government, but on the Continent, 
except in the two little countries, Holland and Switzerland, the 
people had no rights whatever against the will of their sovereigns, 
not even the right to life and property. They had no share in 




Memorial to the King and Queen 

Drawing of a funeral urn with the profile of Louis 
XVI in the base at the left, Marie Antoinette at the 
right, the Dauphin in the willow tree at the right 
margin, and his sister Madame Royale at the left 
of the king's head. Made for sympathetic royalists 
by a contemporary artist. 



Results of the Revolution 471 

their government, no part in making the laws they were obliged 
to obey. 

To-day, however, through the emancipation of the masses of 
the people, the common man has come into his own. His govern- 
ment now offers him not wealth or talent or station, but oppor- 
tunity, a chance to make the best of himself. This had "been 
denied him under the old regime. Who can tell how many Newtons 
and Franklins and Edisons lived and died unknown during the 
Middle Ages, never having learned to read? No wonder the 
progress was slow. The marvelous advance of the past hundred 
years is due largely to the fact that the masses of the people have 
been given a chance — and the ball was set rolling by the French 
Revolution. 

The whole theory of the Revolution may be expressed in this 
brief sentence, — One man is as good as another, — which means 
that all should enjoy the same rights and opportunities. 

Questions and Topics. — I. . How did the Legislative Assembly 
differ from the National Assembly? Describe the fall of the monarchy; 
the trial and execution of the king. 

II. Do you think the king deserved the fate he met? Why? De- 
scribe the clash of political parties. What method was employed by 
the Jacobins to crush the Girondists? Is it a safe method? Is it ever 
employed in this country? What is the metric system? Give a 
summing up of the results of the Revolution. How would you esti- 
mate Danton and Robespierre? The deed of Charlotte Corday? 
What was the most popular French national song? 

Events and Dates. — Establishing of the First Republic in France, 
1792. Execution of King Louis XVI, 1793. The Reign of Terror, 
1793-1794. 

For Further Reading. — Same as under the preceding chapter. 
Belloc, Danton, also Robespierre by the same author. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE 

I. Napoleon Becomes Master of France 

413. Beginning of Napoleon's Career. — No one can tell what 
might have been the story of France in the next two decades but 
for the unexpected appearance of this most remarkable character 
in the history of modem times. 

Born in 1769 on the island of Corsica, of .Italian descent, the 
second son in a family of eight children, Napoleon Bonaparte 
spent several years of his boyhood in military schools in France. 
Thrown in the classroom among nobles who twitted him for his 
poverty, he came to feel bitter against them and their country. 
As a young man he returned to his native island and planned a 
revolt against the government of France, to which the island 
belonged. But he displeased the local authorities and was banished 
from Corsica. Henceforth his destiny was one with that of France. 
We have noticed how he attracted public attention first at Toulon 
and again at Paris. 

414. The Italian Campaign. — The great career of Napoleon 
began when the French Directory sent him on his famous Itahan 
campaign, one of the most brilliant of his life. It was in the 
spring of 1796. Peace had been made with Prussia and Spain, 
but Great Britain and Austria were still at war with France. 
The want of a French fleet made it difficult to attack England, 
and it was determined to attack Austria from three sides. Two 
splendid armies under well-tried generals were sent to attack the 
north. A third and much smaller army was given to General 
Bonaparte to make an attack from the south by way of Italy. 
The two northern armies were defeated and accomplished little ; 
the third was brilliantly successful. 

472 



Napoleon in Italy 



473 



Europe was astonished at the series of lightning-like strokes 
by which the young Corsican commander won his victories. 
Leaving Paris late in March, he crossed the Alps with in- 
credible swiftness. He 
soon occupied the Po 
Valley, captured Milan 
and not only forced 
that city and others to 
pay heavy ransoms but 
also despoiled the 
churches and galleries 
of many fine works of 
art, which were sent to 
France. This spirit of 
plunder was unknown 
in the earlier days of 
the Revolution. 

Austria sent army 
after army against Na- 
poleon during the fol- 
lowing months, but all 
in turn were defeated 
and many thousands of 
prisoners were taken. 
By the following spring 
the intrepid com- 
mander was ready to 
march upon Vienna, 
when the Austrian 
monarch sued for 
peace. By the treaty 
of Cam'po For'mio (1797), Austria ceded to France the Austrian 
Netherlands (now Belgium), but received most of the republic of 
Venice, which Napoleon had seized and despoiled. All the rest of 
northern Italy was left at the disposal of France. 




Josephine, Wife of Napoleon 

From a painting by Prudhon. At the time of his 
marriage, Napoleon was about to start on his ItaHan 
campaign. Josephine was a general favorite, and 
her husband once acknowledged her helpful tact 
with the remark, "I win battles, but Josephine wins 
hearts." In later years, however, after he became 
emperor, he divorced Josephine and married an 
Austrian princess. 



EL. M. T. - 



■31 



474 The French Revolution 

Napoleon returning to Paris was hailed as the hero of the nation. 
Not in a hundred years had France held so commanding a place 
in Europe, and it was the brilliant young Corsican commander 
who had given her such eminence. Conscious of his own powers, 
Napoleon already had it in mind to seize the government of 
France, but he saw that the time was not yet ripe. 

415. The Egyptian Adventure. — The remaining enemy of 
France was England. To strike this enemy on his home soil was 
impossible. Napoleon suggested to the Directory an expedition 
to Egypt, led by himself, the purpose being to threaten the com- 
merce of Great Britain in the Mediterranean and perhaps even 
to cut that country off from her great possessions in India. The 
Directory was jealous of his popularity and gladly consented to 
the proposal, which would take him out of the country. 

With an army of 40,000 men, Napoleon embarked at Toulon 
in May, 1798. By a narrow margin he eluded the battle fleet 
of Admiral Nelson, the great English naval commander, and 
landed at Alexandria. A month later his fleet was destroyed by 
Nelson in the famous battle of the Nile. 

Napoleon was now completely cut off from Europe, and his 
expedition became useless, although he won the battle of the 
Pyramids^ and gained control of Egypt. ^ After making a fruit- 
less excursion into Syria, and after hearing how matters stood in 
France, he determined to abandon his army in Egypt and return 
to Paris. Again eluding Nelson, he landed on the coast of 
France with a few followers in October, 1799. 

Wild and enthusiastic was the rejoicing of the French people 
at this second return of their conquering hero. The fact that 
he had really accomplished little in his Egyptian campaign was 
lost sight of. Few of the people knew at this moment of the 
deep designs of this designing man. 

1 After the battle of the Pyramids Napoleon, surrounded by his staff, received 
the captured standards of the defeated Mamelukes, the influential standing army 
of Egypt. The picture on the opposite page is from a painting by Detaille. 

2 It was at this time that the French soldiers discovered the famous Rosetta 
stone (sec. 21). 



Napoleon Becomes Master of France 475 

416. Napoleon Seizes the French Government. — Napoleon 
understood the French people better than they understood them- 
selves. He saw that the time had come. He knew that the Di- 
rectory, composed of five men, was corrupt and inefficient, that it 
lacked the confidence of the people, and that the country was 
broken into hostile parties. He knew that the people were weary 
unto death of disorder and bloodshed and revolution, and he 
believed that they were ready to welcome a strong hand at the 
helm of the ship of state. Moreover, the treasury was empty ; a 
second great coalition of the nations against France had been 
formed ; and already several French armies had been defeated. 
Even northern Italy, which he had won so brilliantly two years 
before, had been lost to the republic. Weary and disgusted 
with all these things, the French people, though they did not 
know it, were waiting and longing for a strong man, — and here 
he was. 

On the 9th of November, 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte seized the 
government of the French nation. The Directory was quickly 
forced to resign, but the Council of Five Hundred resisted fiercely, 
until Napoleon, imitating Cromwell with the Long Parliament, 
took possession of their hall with a band of soldiers. The members 
escaped speedily through doors and windows, and the Corsican 
commander, at the age of thirty years, was absolute master of 
France. 

417. A View of the New Master. — The transcendent genius 
of Napoleon Bonaparte is acknowledged by all. In personal 
appearance he was not striking or impressive ; he was low of 
stature, thin and slight of body in early manhood. Yet there was 
something that compelled attention in his keen searching eye, 
his animated gestures, his quick, irregular speech. Such was the 
man who was to set up and pull down empires, to make and un- 
make kings and kingdoms, and to make his will the law for half of 
Europe. 

As a commander of armies he had hardly an equal in history. 
Seldom are more than three other warriors — Alexander, Hanni- 



476 The French Revolution 

bal, and Caesar — mentioned in the same class with him. The 
two supreme quahties necessary for a successful commander he 
possessed in a high degree — first, strategic ability, the power of 
faultless planning of campaigns and battles ; and second, the 
power of electrifying an army with his own spirit. 

As a statesman also Napoleon ranks among the greatest in 
history. 

The one vital point to be deplored in the make-up of this 
wonderful man is the fact that he was not guided by any high moral 
principles. Right and wrong were meaningless terms to him, 
and there is every reason to believe that the highest motive of 
his life was to gratify his insatiable selfish ambition for power 
and glory. 

II. The Consulate; Napoleon in Peace 

418. The Government under Napoleon. — The Constitution 
of the Year III fell to pieces with the seizure of the government 
by Napoleon in the fall of 1799. The new constitution adopted 
was known as the Constitution of the Year VIII. It abolished 
the Directory of five men and put in its place a Consulate of three 
men. The "first consul " was Napoleon Bonaparte. One of the 
other two (for a short time) was Sieyes, whom we met in the early 
days of the Revolution (sec. 390). Sieyes had helped to over- 
throw the old government. He had expected to have large powers 
in the new ; but after the first meeting of the three consuls he said 
to some friends, " Gentlemen, we have a master. The republic is 
no more ; it died to-day." 

From this time on for fourteen years the will of Napoleon 
dominated the country as completely as any absolute monarch 
ever governed a nation. The new constitution was molded by his 
will so as to leave all ultimate power in his hands. The other 
two consuls, the legislative bodies, and every official in the 
nation were as puppets in the hands of the young Corsican 
prodigy. And from the start he proved himself as truly a master 
in administration as he had done on the battlefield. 



The Consulate; Napoleon in Peace 477 

He soon reestablished order throughout the country; he re- 
called the noble emigrants and declared ■ them eligible to office; 
he cleared the country of bandits, reopened the churches, and 
placed the finances on a firm basis. The departments he governed 
by officers called prefects and subprefects, who took the place of 
the intendants of the days of the kings. 

419. Second Italian Campaign ; Luneville and Amiens. — 
On Christmas Day, 1799, Napoleon offered peace to Great Britain 
and Austria. Both refused. Great Britain, led by William Pitt 
the younger, one of the greatest of British premiers, suggested 
that France prove her good faith by recalling the Bourbons to the 
throne, which made the French furious, 

A few months later Napoleon astonished the Austrians by 
swooping down from the Alps into northern Italy. His army 
crossed the Alps by way of the Great St. Bernard Pass, rivaling 
the feat of Hannibal. The cannon were dragged through the 
snow-covered mountains in hoUowed-out trunks of trees. 

There was one great conflict, the battle of Maren'go (June 14, 
1800), in which at a single stroke Napoleon won back all of north- 
em Italy. Meantime he had sent General Moreau (mo-ro') to 
strike Austria on the north. In December Moreau defeated the 
enemy at the battle of Hohenlinden (ho-en-lin'den) ; and with 
these two French victories Austria was humbled and sued for 
peace. The treaty of Luneville (lii-na-vel') followed (1801) and 
most of the provisions of Campo Formio were repeated. The 
Rhine River was made the eastern boundary of France. 

The next year, March 25, 1802, Napoleon made peace with 
Great Britain in the treaty of Amiens (a-myaN'), and for the first 
time since he came into power France was at peace with all the 
world. 

420. Progress in Peace. — ■ Great in war as Napoleon was, 
he was almost equally great in peace. Indeed, it may be said 
that while his military victories left no permanent effects, much 
of his constructive work in time of peace endures to this day. 

The tax rate was speedily fixed and the money of the country 



478 The French Revolution 

made stable after being for years of uncertain and varying value. 
A sinking fund for the paying of the public debt was established, 
and the Banlv of France was founded. Great activity in road 
and bridge building and in improving the docks became the order 
of the day. 

Two of the most memorable of Napoleon's achievements were 
his treaty with the Catholic Church and his new code of laws. 

The forces of the Revolution had persecuted the church, espe- 
cially the priests who had refused to take the oath prescribed for 
them. Napoleon was personally devoid of religious principles, 
but he saw clearly that by making some concessions he could 
gain the support of the church. He thereupon made a treaty 
with the pope in 1801 , known as the Concor'dat.^ By this arrange- 
ment the rites of the Catholic Church might be freely observed. 
But the church none the less remained largely under the control 
of the government, which was to nominate the bishops, who in turn 
appointed the priests. 

The law code was arranged by experts appointed by Napoleon. 
The laws had been in a chaotic condition. Thej^ were now care- 
fully collected and published in 1804. This collection was called 
the Code Napoleon. It is still in use in France and in various 
other countries. 

One of the notable incidents of this period was the sale of 
Louisiana to the United States. Napoleon had recently received 
Louisiana from Spain, but he saw that Great Britain would be 
able to prevent him from building up a great colony across the 
Atlantic, and he therefore sold it rather than run the risk of losing 
it in war. 

III. The Empire and the Napoleonic Wars 

421. Napoleon Becomes Emperor. — The personal ambition 
of this " man of destiny " was unbounded. No monarch of the 
ancient Orient was fonder of homage and adulation. Since 
the seizure of the government in 1799 he had been absolute 

1 The Concordat was abrogated in 1905 after being in force for 104 years. 



The Empire 479 

master in France. In 1802 he was made first consul for life with 
the power to choose his own successor. But his ambition was not 
yet satisfied. Why not have the title as well as the power of a 
monarch? The pliant Senate, heedful of its master's wishes, 
therefore formally requested him to become hereditary monarch 
with the title of emperor. No urging was needed. On December 
2, 1804, in the great cathedral of Notre Dame (no-tr' dam') in 
Paris, General Bonaparte was crowned as Napoleon I, Emperor 
of the French. The occasion was one of great pomp and cere- 
mony. The crowd was innumerable ; the musicians alone num- 
bered five hundred. The pope had come all the way from Rome 
expecting to place the crown on his head, but Napoleon took it 
and placed it on his own head. He wished the world to know that 
he was not indebted to the church, but to his own genius, for his 
success and his lofty eminence. 

Napoleon as emperor preserved for France one great principle 
of the Revolution — equality before the law — but at heart he 
was no democrat. He created a new nobility and introduced all 
the pomp of the old French kings. He employed both republicans 
and royalists in his service, he bridled and guided the left-over 
forces of the Revolution, and he made the church subservient to 
his imperial will. Liberty of the press and freedom of speech 
were sternly suppressed by Napoleon. He terrorized and con- 
ciliated as suited his purpose. But withal, he governed France 
with a master hand ; his energy was prodigious and tireless. 
He established the Bank of France and the Legion of Honor ; he 
released the imprisoned priests and put a stop to forced loans ; he 
constructed roads and bridges and docks. The vast majority of 
the people were contented with the change. 

422. Napoleon's Ambition. — This mighty man was at the 
parting of the ways. What a name he could have left to the 
world had he now been content to spend the remainder of his 
life building up France and cultivating the friendship of her 
neighbors ! Already his military renown filled the world ; he 
needed no more glory of conquest. Already his country held a 



480 The French Revolution 

commanding position. On the east, on the north, and on the 
south her boundaries had been greatly enlarged, and it was due 
chiefly to himself. He enjoyed the unbounded confidence of his 
people. Could he only settle down to a life of peace and con- 
structive statesmanship ! But he could not. 

To govern a nation in the ordinary way, even to be absolute 
monarch of a great world power, was to live a life too tame for 
Napoleon's ambitious and restless soul. A soldier he was above 
all things, nor was he troubled with remorse on account of whole- 
sale shedding of human blood. Moreover, he was obsessed with 
the idea that Europe should be a confederated state with a single 
imperial head. 

The peace with Great Britain continued but a year, when the 
treaty of Amiens was set aside. England induced Russia and 
Austria to join her and thus the Third Coalition was formed 
against France. Napoleon made ready to invade the British 
Isles, but the frowning cannon of Nelson's men-of-war guarding 
the Channel made the undertaking too perilous, and suddenly he 
wheeled about and plunged into the heart of Europe. 

423. Trafalgar and Austerlitz. — Austria was Napoleon's 
goal, and the campaign was won in a single decisive battle — the 
great battle of Aus'terlitz. Here on Dec. 2, 1805, a year from 
the day of his coronation at Notre Dame, Napoleon crushed 
the combined Austrian and Russian armies. In the treaty of 
Pressburg which followed, Austria gave up much of her territory, 
including Venice, acknowledged the independence of Baden 
(ba'den), and agreed that the rulers of Bavaria (ba-va'ri-a) and 
Wiirttemberg (viir'tem-berK) be raised to the rank of kings. 
These and several other German states were then formed into 
the Confederation of the Rhine, with Napoleon as " Protector." 
The next year, 1806, witnessed the extinguishing of the old 
German Empire, or Holy Roman Empire (sees. 209, 248, 249), 
after an existence of a thousand years. 

Meantime one of the greatest sea fights in history had taken 
place. The British admiral, Nelson, on October 21, 1805, engaged 



The Napoleonic Wars 



481 




Battle of Trafalgar 



and almost annihilated the French and Spanish fleets at Trafalgar' 
off the coast of Spain. " England expects every man to do his 
duty," were Nelson's 
memorable words as 
the battle opened. 
Like Gustavus Adol- 
phus at Liitzen, Nelson 
lost his life, but his 
victory was complete. 
The supremacy of Eng- 
land on the sea was as- 
sured, and Napoleon's 
last hope of invading the island kingdom was gone. 

424. Humiliation of Prussia ; the Peace of Tilsit. For fen 
years Prussia had been at peace with France. Her king had 
refused to join the other nations against Napoleon. But that 
conqueror, in his thirst for more conquest after humbling Austria 
and Russia at Austerlitz, moved into Prussia, goaded her into 
war, and inflicted a fearful defeat on her at the battle of Jena 
(ya'na), October 14,- 1806, and the same month entered Berlin' in 
triumph. The following June he defeated the Russians at Fried- 
land (fred'lant), and all Central Europe lay at his feet. Then 
came the treaty of Tilsit (tirzit). 

The tsar of Russia, Alexander I, met the French emperor 
on a raft in the Niemen (ne'men) River, and here one of the great 
treaties of the time was arranged, — the treaty of Tilsit, Jul}^, 
1807. The romantic young tsar was charmed by the fascinating 
emperor and was ready to listen to his extraordinary proposals. 
Napoleon spread before his eyes the division of the world into 
two mighty empires, with the tsar and himself their respective 
heads. Alexander was to expand into Asia and was to seize 
portions of Turkey and of Sweden, while the French Empire 
was to be supreme over central and western Europe. 

This famous treaty provided for the dismemberment of Prussia 
with the loss of more than half its territory. On the west was 



482 The French Revolution 

created the kingdom of Westphalia, with Jerome Bonaparte, a 
brother of the French emperor, as its king ; on the east, the 
duchy of Warsaw, — only a part of the old Poland, now taken from 
Prussia (and later from Austria), — with the king of Saxony, 
Napoleon's ally, as its ruler. Thus the Poles, who had fought 
faithfully in the Napoleonic battles, were cruelly denied the great- 
est longing in their souls — the restoration of their land and self- 
government. Moreover, the treaty of Tilsit provided for the 
humbling of England by means of a continental blockade to be 
enforced jointly by the two emperors. 

425. Napoleon at the Height of his Power. — The treaty of 
Tilsit marks the high tide in Napoleon's career. Beginning life 
on a small, dependent island of the Mediterranean, he had risen, 
through his own matchless genius and energy, to a height that 
few men in history had ever attained. He was emperor of the 
French and king of Italy with absolute power ; he was ruler of 
Switzerland with the title of Mediator. 

In addition, he had surrounded the French Empire with vassal 
states in which he had created thrones for the various members of 
his family. His three brothers each sat upon a throne. Louis 
Bonaparte was king of Holland, Joseph was king of Naples, later 
of Spain, and Jerome was king of Westphalia, a state created for 
his benefit. Napoleon's brother-in-law, Murat (mii-ra'), fol- 
lowed Joseph as king of Naples. No Bourbon or Hapsburg or 
Hohenzollern family had ever wielded such power as this family 
so recently obscure and unknown. In 18 10 Sweden, whose king 
was without an heir, chose one of Napoleon's marshals, Bema- 
dotte (bur-na-dot') , as crown prince and heir to the throne. 

In his military career Napoleon had proved himself a matchless 
leader. Three times he had humbled the proud House of Haps- 
burg to the dust, and a fourth was to be added in the future. 
Three times he had defeated the Russian armies, and he had 
torn to pieces the great kingdom that the Hohenzollems had 
been building for four centuries. But the highwater mark had 
been reached and the ebb was soon to begin. 






Napoleon's Continental System 483 

IV. Decline and Fall of the Empire of Napoleon 

426. The Continental System. — Napoleon having made an 
ally of Russia at Tilsit and having subdued nearly all the rest of 
Europe, had remaining the one unconquered enemy, — Great 
Britain. The victory of Nelson at Trafalgar made an invasion 
of that country impossible. Napoleon therefore as a last resort 
determined to starve out the island kingdom by enforcing his 
blockade known as the Continental System. It was the arch- 
enemy England that had stirred up the Continent against him and 
had furnished large sums of money to his enemies. Therefore, he 
determined to crush England at all hazards. 

In November, 1806, Napoleon issued his Berlin Decree, de- 
claring a blockade of the British Isles, and forbidding British 
trade with France and other parts of the Continent. French 
ports were left open to neutral trade ; but in retaliation for the 
Berlin Decree the British ministry issued an order in Council 
(November, 1807) forbidding any neutral vessel to trade at a 
French port without first paying a duty at a British port.^ This 
again led Napoleon, then in Italy, to issue his Milan Decree 
(December, 1807). By this he declared any neutral ship comply- 
ing with the British requirement a lawful prize and subject 
to seizure and confiscation. Thus like fighting dogs the two 
nations snapped and snarled at each other. 

In the end the Continental System greatly impaired the 
prestige of Napoleon in central Europe. Hitherto the masses 
of the people had not been greatly displeased with the invasions 
of Napoleon. He had destroyed the remaining vestiges of feudal- 
ism and had dethroned many of their petty tyrannical rulers. He 
had brought the people some of the blessings of the French 
Revolution. But the Continental System brought them nothing 
but discomfort and loss. Thousands of business men were ruined. 
Their ships lay rotting in the harbors. Sugar, cotton, and many 

1 These measures were especially severe on American shipping and became in 
part the cause of the War of 1812 with Great Britain a few years later. 



484 The French Revolution 

other things were unobtainable. The people rightly believed 
that they suffered all this merely to gratify the boundless ambi- 
tion of one man. Their national spirit was awakened and soon 
they were ready to rise and throw off the yoke of their oppressor. 
But from an unexpected quarter, the kingdom of Spain, came 
the first serious blow to the power of the great emperor. 

427. Uprising in Spain. — The weak and effete monarchy of 
Spain had been subservient to Napoleon for years. With nothing 
to gain it had furnished men for his armies and money for his 
treasury ; it had sold him Louisiana for a price that was never 
paid ; it had declared war on Great Britain only to please him, 
and had sent its fleet to be destroyed at Trafalgar. 

After all this abject servitude the French emperor, detecting 
a sign of discontent in Spain, determined on one of the most high- 
handed political crimes in history — nothing less than to dethrone 
the Spanish monarch and place his own brother on the vacant 
throne. The old king, Charles IV,^ was cajoled into abdicating, 
and his son Ferdinand was forced to renounce his rights. Napo- 
leon then, in the spring of 1808, deliberately took his brother 
Joseph from the throne of Naples and placed him on the throne 
of Spain — all this without a word of approval from the Spanish 
people. 

When Joseph entered Madrid' in July he found the whole 
country seething with discontent and rebellion. In addition to 
fighting for their Bourbon dynasty the Spaniards had two reasons 
for refusing longer to bow to the yoke of Napoleon. First, he had 
quarreled with the pope and held him a prisoner, and they were 
ready to avenge their spiritual father at any cost. Second, 
they loved their medieval government and wanted none of the 
progressive innovations of the French Revolution. 

King Joseph was forced to flee from his capital. Several 
French armies were captured or driven back, by half-equipped 
armies or guerrilla bands emerging from the mountains. Napo- 

1 The emperor Charles V, who reigned in the first half of the sixteenth century, 
was Charles I of Spain. 



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Facing 485 



Decline and Fall of the Empire of Napoleon 485 

leon was enraged. In person he marched into Spain with 200,000 
men and recaptured Madrid. But he could not remain, and no 
sooner had he gone than the Spanish rebellion was as widespread 
as before. 

Herein lay England's opportunity to throw an army upon the 
Continent. Sir Arthur Wellesley (welz'li), afterward the Duke 
of Wellington, entered Spain by way of Portugal, which was also 
hostile to the French. Then followed the long Peninsular War, 
in which all the French forces were driven out of Spain. This 
uprising of the Spaniards proved the first great step in the over- 
throw of Napoleon. 

Napoleon's hurried departure from Spain was caused by an- 
other war brewing in Austria, and thither he marched with a 
large army. But in this case he found his task more difficult 
than he had found it at Austerlitz. In May, 1809, Napoleon 
was defeated at the battle of Aspem (as'pem), near Vienna, but 
in July he won a victory at the battle of Wagram^ (va'gram), 
and Austria was again humbled to the dust. In the treaty of 
Vienna which followed, Austria was obliged to yield to the con- 
queror large sections of her territory, including four million of her 
inhabitants. 

428. The Disastrous Russian Campaign (1812). — The records 
of history present no more tragic military event than Napoleon's 
hapless campaign into Russia. The Continental System brought 
no advantage to Russia. When Alexander fully realized that its 
only purpose was to cripple England in order to gratify the 
ambition of the French emperor, he grew lukewarm in its enforce- 
ment. For this and other reasons Napoleon became angered. 
He determined to humble the Muscovite empire, the only remain- 
ing great continental power that had not come under his control. 
He raised a mighty army of 500,000 men and marched into Russia, 
in June 18 12. He expected to take about three years to conquer 
the Russian Empire, after which he proposed to make a great 

1 The picture facing page 473 is from a painting by Vernet, a favorite artist of 
Napoleon. It is in the famous Gallery of Battles in the palace of Versailles. 



486 The French Revolution 

expedition to the Orient and strike India. But the fates had in 
store for him a very different outcome. 

The wily tsar played a skillful game. His army retreated 
day after day, devastating the country and luring the French 
farther and farther from their base of supplies. But once did 
the tsar offer battle, and then Napoleon won a costly victory. 

The invaders entered Moscow in the middle of September. 
Most of its 250,000 inhabitants had fled, and but a few thousand 
stragglers and vagabonds remained. Then the city caught fire ; 
how, no one knows. It may have been by the order of Alexander. 
So great was the blaze that one could see to read at midnight ten 
miles away. Five weeks Napoleon waited, expecting the tsar to 
make overtures of peace. But Alexander made no move. He 
well knew that his great ally — the Russian winter — would soon 
come to his rescue. Moscow was in ashes. The surrounding 
country was devastated. Nothing but an early retreat could 
save the French army from perishing. 

The retreat began late in October. It proved a tragedy. 
The blasts of winter soon overtook the fleeing men. The Rus- 
sian cavalry harassed and cut them down. Besides, they were 
starving, and to the thousands of unburied bodies of their com- 
rades who had perished on the inward march , tens of thousands of 
the retreating army were added. Nine weeks of that dreadful 
march, and the famishing remnants of the once grand army, now 
scarcely twenty thousand, crossed the friendly boundary into 
the duchy of Warsaw. 

429. The War of Liberation ; the Battle of the Nations. — 
Napoleon never recovered from the frightful Russian disaster. 
He had left his retreating army and hurried to Paris, where with 
almost superhuman energy he raised another army. He knew 
that now he must fight again, not for conquest, but for his throne. 

In the early summer of 181 3 he was in the heart of Germany 
with half a million men, many of them raw recruits. The magic 
of his name was broken by the Russian campaign. Long- 
oppressed Central Europe was arming against him. It was a 



Decline and Fall of the Empire of Napoleon 487 

" War of Liberation." At first he won an empty victory or two, 
but the decisive battle was yet to be fought. 

At this critical juncture Austria might have joined Napoleon 
had he agreed to restore part of her stolen territory ; but this 
he refused to do, and she joined Russia and Prussia against him. 
Sweden, led by Bernadotte, also joined the allies. 

Slowly and irresistibly the allied armies closed in from three 
sides on the French army near Leipzig (lip'sik). Then came the 
tremendous three days' conflict, the battle of Leipzig, or the 
" Battle of the Nations," October 16-18, 1813. Napoleon 
fought like a wild beast at bay, but he could not win; his 
enemies overpowered him, and a little later he was fleeing across 
the Rhine with a remnant of his broken legions. 

Then came the crash of a falling empire. All Germany rose 
against the sometime conqueror. Holland, Bavaria, Naples 
hastened to join his foes. King Jerome Bonaparte fled for his 
life from Westphalia. Wellington was pressing in across the 
Pyrenees on the south. And at this moment Napoleon made the 
greatest blunder that he ever made. He rejected (November, 
18 13) an offer of peace, making the Rhine, the Alps, and the 
Pyrenees the boundaries of France. The man whose will had 
been law for half the world could not settle down to the peaceful 
government of a single nation. With scorn he rejected the pro- 
posal ; and the allied armies moved upon France. With des- 
perate ferocity this man of the iron will defended his capital during 
the winter months ; but the odds were against him. Paris was 
captured in March, 18 14, and Napoleon abdicated his throne at 
Fontainebleau (see page 408) on April 11. He took leave of his 
generals in the Court of the Farewells, before the main entrance 
to the palace. 

The fallen emperor was banished to the island of Elba, near 
the western coast of Italy, and was made sovereign of the island. 

430. Return from Elba. — On the downfall of Napoleon a 
congress of nations met at Vienna to reorganize the states of 
Europe. Among other things it decided to reinstate the Bourbons 



488 The French Revolution 

on the throne of France. The next heir was a brother of Louis 
XVI. He had fled from France in the early days of the Revolu- 
tion and had not set foot on French soil for nearly a quarter of a 
century. He was now a fat, gouty old gentleman, good-natured 
and with little ability. He entered Paris and became king under 
the title of Louis XVni,i but his reign was unpopular with many 
classes. 

In the tiny island-realm of Elba the tireless energy and the 
burning ambition of Napoleon could find no contentment. 
Having heard of the dissatisfaction with the Bourbon rule in 
France, and of ominous dissensions in the Congress of Vienna, 
the emperor (he had not been deprived of his title) decided on 
the most daring adventure in all his amazing career — a dash into 
France for the recovery of his throne. With 800 of his old guard, 
who had been his companions in exile, he landed on the southern 
coast of France on March i, 181 5. His irresistible personal 
magnetism was never more in evidence. Multitudes of people 
on his journey to Paris received him with tears and shouts of joy. 
Marshal Ney (na), who had fought by his side in many a battle, 
but had gone over to the king, was sent to capture him. When 
he came in sight of his old commander, he burst into tears and 
clasped him in his arms. 

Louis XVIII fled at the approach of Napoleon. The emperor 
entered Paris and set up his government, changing the constitu- 
tion and giving the people much greater liberty than he had ever 
done before. 

The Congress of Vienna was astonished at the news of the Corsi- 
can's return. The rulers of Europe refused to accept his pro- 
fessed desire for peace. They pronounced him an outlaw, and 
four of the great powers pledged themselves each to keep 150,000 
men in the field until he should be finally overpowered. 

1 The new king proclaimed this as the nineteenth year of his reign, ignoring the 
republic and the Napoleonic empire. The little son of King Louis XVI, though he 
died in childhood and never wore the crown, was considered by the royalists as 
Louis XVII. 



Decline and Fall of the Empire of Napoleon 489 

431. Waterloo (June 18, 1815). — Nothing could save the 
restored throne of Napoleon but war, and war only for a little 
time. The allied armies were gathering over Europe, and 
France would soon be hemmed in on every side. Early in June 
the emperor, having raised his last army, started out for his last 
battle. But it was not a large army, less than 100,000 men. The 
old-time vigor of the days of Danton, or of Austerlitz, was gone. 

The Duke of Wellington 
with a motley army of Eng- 
lish, Dutch, Belgians, and 
Germans was near Brussels, 
and Blucher (blii'Ker) with 
an army of Prussians was 
hastening to join him. Na- 
poleon determined to en- 
gage them singly and pre- 
vent their union if possible. 
Hastening to the north, he 
struck Blucher at Ligny 
(len-ye') on June 16 and 
drove him back with heavy 
loss. Two days later he en- 
countered Wellington near 
the village of Waterloo'. Movements Leading to Waterloo 
There is hardly a doubt that Napoleon would have won the day 
had not Blucher reached the field in the afternoon. It then re- 
quired nearly half the French army to fight the Prussians. This 
gave Wellington an immense advantage. The battle raged till 
nightfall. At length the French wavered and became demoral- 
ized. They turned and fled from the field in great disorder and 
confusion. 

Thus ended the military career of perhaps the ablest com- 
mander of men in the annals of history. Eloquently Victor 
Hugo says that Napoleon was overthrown, not on account of 
Blucher, but on account of God. "It was time that this vast 

EL. M. T. — 32 




49° The French Revolution 

man should fall. His excessive weight in human destiny dis- 
turbed the balance and would have proved fatal to civilization 
had it endured." 

432. St. Helena. — Napoleon fied to Paris from the gory field 
of Waterloo. Again he was forced to abdicate his throne. 
Hastening to the coast, a hunted fugitive, he hoped to find 
passage to America, but the coast was too well guarded by British 
vessels. He then went aboard a British warship, the Beller'ophon, 
and begged the right to end his days in seclusion in England. But 
as Napoleon had broken faith with the allies at Elba, they were 
unwilling to trust him again. He was banished to the rocky 
island of St. Hele'na, far away in the Atlantic Ocean between 
Brazil and the coast of Africa. Here, under heavy guard, with 
1300 miles of rolling sea between him and the mainland, the 
mighty Corsican, who had transformed the world as no other man 
ever did, fretted away the rest of his life brooding over the glories 
of the past.^ 

433. Napoleon in History. — The French Revolution may be 
said to have covered twenty-six years, 1789-18 15. The first ten 
years were a period of destruction, of fire and violence and storm, 
during which the old royal structure of society was torn to pieces. 

The early enthusiasm then abated. The people were listless, 
weary of violence and bloodshed. The pendulum was swinging 
back. But the great work was only half done. A new edifice 
had to be reared. Who was there equal to the task ? Danton 
had been guillotined, Mirabeau was gone. There was not a 
great constructive statesman in France. 

Then came Napoleon, the man of gigantic intellect, of boundless 
ambition, capable of all tasks that might fall to him. He picked 
up the reins of government that lay limp before him. The 
nation was electrified with energy and vitality at his magic touch. 
For fifteen years following, the history of this man and the his- 
tory of Europe were almost one and the same thing. 

1 Napoleon died on May s> 1821, of cancer of the stomach, at the age of 52. In 
1840 his remains were taken to Paris and placed in a magnificent tomb. 



Napoleon in History 491 

-It is not easy to say what Europe might have been without 
Napoleon. It is true that his motives were not high. His 
personal ambition was abnormal and he lacked the greatest 
thing in life — a high-born moral principle. But he was an 
instrument in bringing about great benefits to civilization. He 
saved France from falling into confusion and he shook up Central 
Europe in such a way as to make it impossible for the parts ever 
again to be laid as they were before. Whether the career of 
Napoleon was a blessing or a calamity to the world must be 
determined by weighing the good that he wrought against the 
lives of the million men he sacrificed in accomplishing it. 

Questions and Topics. — I. Relate the early life of Napoleon Bona- 
parte. Tell of his Italian and Egyptian campaigns. What plan did 
he use in seizing the French Government? Would such seizure be 
possible in our country? Why? 

II. How did Napoleon manage the government after he gained 
control of it? Describe the Consulate. What was the Concordat? 
the treaty of Amiens? Code Napoleon? Why did Napoleon sell 
Louisiana to the United States? 

III. Why did Napoleon not permit the pope to crown him? On 
what was the ambition of Napoleon apparently based? Describe 
Trafalgar, Austerlitz. Is sea power very important in war? Why? 
Describe the peace of Tilsit. 

IV. In-what way did the Continental System weaken the power of 
Napoleon? Why did the Spaniards rise against him? Write an essay 
on the Russian campaign. What was the War of Liberation? De- 
scribe the return from Elba ; the battle of Waterloo ; the imprisonment 
at St. Helena. Give an estimate of Napoleon's life work. 

Events and Dates. — ^ Napoleon Bonaparte, born 1769; becomes 
emperor of France, 1804; overthrown at Waterloo, 1815. Sale of 
Louisiana, 1803. Battles of Austerlitz and Trafalgar, 1805. 

For Further Reading. — Every school library should have one or more 
lives of Napoleon. Among the best are those by Sloane and Rosebery. 
Stephens, Revolutionary Europe. Mathews, French Revolution. 



CHAPTER XXXV 
EUROPE AFTER THE REVOLUTION 

I. The Congress of Vienna; Changes in Europe 

434. Changes in Germany. — The nation that suffered most 
and was benefited most by the Napoleonic wars was Germany. 
It is true that in Austria, then a part of Germany, the principles 
of the French Revolution took but little immediate hold, but in 
Prussia and other northern states there was a change for the better. 

Napoleon destroyed many petty states and reduced the number 
of independent governments from about three hundred to thirty- 
eight. This was a first step toward laying the foundations of a 
united Germany. Still more important was the abolition of serf- 
dom in most of the German states. 

As early as October 9, 1807, under the guidance of an able 
statesman. Baron Stein (shtin), the king of Prussia decreed the 
end of serfdom in all his remaining dominions ; also the right of 
the peasant to buy land and live as free as his master had done 
before. By this reform great numbers of peasants were awakened 
to new life and quickened patriotism, as was shown in the War 
of Liberation a few years later (sec. 429). Petty tyranny and 
perverted justice held sway no longer in Prussia, although con- 
stitutional government was reserved for a later generation. 

435. Work of the Congress of Vienna. — No more distinguished 
body has met in modern times than the Congress of Vienna.^ 
Many of the royal rulers of Europe were present in person, others 
through representatives. The two most interesting non-royal 
figures in attendance were Prince Metternich (met'er-niK), of 

1 The "Congress" of Vienna was never really organized. It was a series of in- 
formal meetings of diplomats who made treaties among themselves, each securing 
as good a bargain as he could. 

492 



The Congress of Vienna 493 

Austria, and Tal'leyrand, who represented France. Mettemich, 
as we shall notice later, was an enemy of all reform. Talleyrand, 
who had been faithful to Napoleon during his ascendancy,^ 
quickly turned to the Bourbons on his fall. It was he who sug- 
gested the return of the Bourbons and who saved France from 
being despoiled and disrupted by the angry aUies that had suffered 
so many blows in the recent wars. As it was, the Congress took 




Talleyrand 



Metternich 



from France all the territory she had annexed since the beginning 
of the Revolution. 

Belgium (the former Austrian Netherlands), which had been 
incorporated with France, was now added to Holland ; and the 
kingdom of the Netherlands, as the combined country was called, 
was put under the rule of the House of Orange, descendants of 
William the Silent (sec. 319). 

In Germany the Holy Roman Empire was not restored, but the 
thirty-eight German states were formed into a loose union, called 
the German Confederation. Prussia was given half of Saxony 

1 It is of interest to note that Talleyrand acted as Napoleon's agent in the sale of 
Louisiana to the United States. 



494 Europe after the Revolution 

(which had been faithful to Napoleon to the last) and a large 
tract on the Rhine (map following page 496). 

Austria received Venice and Lombardy, while nearly all the 
other states of Italy were restored to their respective princes who 
had reigned before the wars. 

Sweden lost Finland to the Russian tsar, but on the other hand 
Norway was taken from Denmark (sec. 256) and placed under the 
rule of the Swedish king. Bernadotte (sees. 425, 429) remained 
the heir to the Swedish throne, and he and his family have occu- 
pied it since 18 18. 

The treatment of Denmark was like that of Saxony ; both had 
been in league with Napoleon, and both were now punished, the 
one by the loss of half its territory and the other by the loss of 
Norway. 

Napoleon's duchy o.f Warsaw, with reduced boundaries, was 
made a kingdom of Poland, with the tsar of Russia as its king. 

Switzerland, the favored of all the states, was left free to govern 
itself ; and the powers agreed not to invade it or to send troops 
across its territory. 

Great Britain had been the most persistent of all Napoleon's 
enemies. She had for years furnished the allies with money, 
and had incurred an immense war debt. In the final settlement 
at Vienna, Great Britain received Cape Colony in South Africa, 
Ceylon, and a few small islands. Her empire, now including 
Canada, India, South Africa, and Austraha, was the most 
extensive the world had ever seen . 

II. The Spirit of Reaction 

436. Prince Metternich. — The ruling spirit in the Congress 
of Vienna was Metternich, the great Austrian minister. He was 
of noble but not of royal blood. He was a statesman of keen and 
comprehensive mind, and might have made a notable name in 
history but for his " stand-pat " and reactionary principles. 
He despised liberal ideas and reforms. He believed in the divine 



The Spirit of Reaction 495 

right of kings and hated democracy in all its forms. He was an 
uncompromising foe to the principles of the French Revolution. 

It was chiefly the influence of Metternich that parceled out 
the small states at the Congress of Vienna without consulting 
their people. Note what was done : Belgium, against the bitter 
protests of its people, was added to Holland ; the Poles longed 
for self-government, and most of them were placed under the 
tyranny of the tsar of Russia ; Norway, Venice, and other sec- 
tions received similar treatment, against the fierce resentment 
of the people.^ Switzerland was the only republic left in Europe. 
All the peoples who had attained self-government since the open- 
ing of the Revolution, including the French themselves, were 
thrust back under despotic monarchs , — and all this by the rulers 
without the consent of the people. It was the period of reaction. 
But the spirit of liberty had been awakened and was destined to 
prevail in the end, as we shall see in later chapters. 

437. Repression Gone Mad. • — The astute Metternich, though 
unable to undo all the work of the French Revolution, deter- 
mined that its principles should go no further. He organized 
the great nations in a league to aid one another in putting down 
any movements of the people toward attaining more liberal 
conditions. Spies and secret police were sent prowling about to 
ferret out any signs of conspiracy. 

The Prussian king had promised his people a constitution at the 
time of the War of Liberation in 181 3, and other rulers had made 
similar promises. Metternich saw to it that these promises 
were not kept. Still the people cherished hopes for more liberal 
governments. Authors, journalists, professors and students of 
universities, kept agitating the subject, and many of them were 
sent into exile for such crimes as wearing the colors that stood 
for liberty or singing patriotic songs. In 1817 were issued the 

1 These acts of the Congress of Vienna are what are alluded to in President 
Wilson's address to Congress, February 1 1, 1918, in these words : " that peoples and 
provinces are not to be bartered about from sovereignty to sovereignty as if they 
were mere chattels and pawns in a game." 



496 Europe after the Revolution 

Carlsbad Decrees, by which hberty of speech and of the press 
was denied the people of the German states, students' clubs were 
suppressed, and spies were sent to the universities to report the 
teaching of any liberal ideas by the professors. 



III. Uprising in Southern Europe 



438. Revolts in Spain, Naples, and Portugal. — As Spain was 
the first of the nations in which the people rose against Napoleon 
Spain took the lead also in rising against the repressive policy of 
Metternich. In 18 12 the Spaniards, having with the aid of 
Wellington ejected the armies of Napoleon, adopted a constitution. 
But soon after the exiled Bourbon king, Ferdinand VII, was 
restored to his father's throne, he trampled the constitution in 
the dust and restored the absolute government and the Inquisition. 
Spain was precipitated back to the Middle Ages. The result was 
an insurrection covering the whole country. The tyrannical 
king, a coward as well as a knave, then swore to observe the con- 
stitution. 

The Spanish revolt soon spread to Portugal and to Naples, 
which was, like Spain, again under a Bourbon ruler. In both 
countries the people rose in rebellion against tyranny, adopted 
constitutions modeled on that of Spain, and forced their respective 
kings to accept them. Here was the opportunity for the shrewd 
Metternich, more a tyrant than Napoleon ever was, to put his 
policy of intervention to the test. 

439. The Holy Alliance. — The Holy Alliance was merely a 
league of fraternal friendship of the European monarchs, called 
forth in 1815 by the sentimental tsar of Russia. It pledged the 
signers to govern their respective countries in accordance with 
the principles of the Bible, with "justice, charity, and peace." 
It had little effect on European politics and would have been for- 
gotten but for the fact that the term has been wrongly used to 
designate the league that was later formed for the purpose of 
putting down popular revolts. 



1 

as I 
"I 




Fulluwing 496 



Uprising in Southern Europe 497 

Mettemich, alarmed at conditions in Spain, Portugal, and 
Naples, called a congress of the sovereigns to meet at Troppau 
(trop'ou) in Austria. At this meeting, Austria, Russia, and Prussia 
signed a declaration pledging themselves (1820) to join their forces 
in crushing uprisings of the people wherever such might occur. 

It was not long before an Austrian army moved into Naples, 
where the liberals, badly organized, were soon defeated. The 
treacherous king, in violation of his oath, resumed his absolute 
government and ruthlessly punished the defeated liberals. The 
same year (i 821) an Austrian army did a similar service in northern 
Italy, where the people, longing for freedom, had risen against 
their oppressors. 

Spain was next to fall under the Mettemich system of repression. 
Another congress of the powers was held at Vero'na in 1822, and 
France was induced to join the three eastern powers. It was 
here decided that a French army be sent to suppress the Spanish 
constitution. This was done, and King Ferdinand again became 
an absolute monarch. 

440. The Monroe Doctrine. — Meantime the Spanish colonies 
in America had been in revolt. While Napoleon was in power 
these colonies had enjoyed much liberty, having refused to 
acknowledge Joseph Bonaparte as their king. But on the return 
of a Bourbon ruler to the Spanish throne an effort was made to 
reduce them to their former condition of colonial dependence. 
Having tasted the sweets of liberty, they refused to give them up. 
They rose in revolt, one after another, from Argentina to Mexico. 
King Ferdinand sought to induce the powers at Verona to aid 
him in subduing the American colonies, and they might have 
done so but for two very serious obstacles — Great Britain and the 
United States. 

Great Britain had bitterly protested against Metternich's 
policy of repression. She had saved Portugal from the fate of 
Naples and Spain. And now when it was proposed that the 
powers join together to subdue Spanish America, Great Britain 
determined to oppose the project. 



498 Europe after the Revolution 

At this time the British Secretary of Foreign Affairs was George 
Canning, a broad and hberal-minded statesman, who proposed 
to James Monroe, President of the United States, that the two 
countries join in an alliance to protect Spanish America.^ This 
country preferred to act alone, and in December, 1823, the Pres- 
ident issued the famous Monroe Doctrine. The main feature of 
fhis " doctrine " is a declaration that no part of America must 
be considered as subject for future colonization by any European 
powers, and that any attempt to extend their systems to any 
portion of this hemisphere would be considered dangerous to our 
peace and safety and as showing an unfriendly disposition toward 
the United States. 

This attitude of Great Britain and the United States quickly put 
an end to all thought of aiding Spain, and as Spain was too feeble 
to put down the revolt alone, the former Spanish-American colonies 
were left to themselves, and they have since then enjoyed complete 
independence. 

441. The Greek Revolution. — The attitude of Great Britain 
and the United States with respect to Spanish America caused 
the first break in the Metternich system. The second came with 
the Greek revolution. For centuries the Greeks had been subject 
to Mohammedan Turkey. For centuries they had paid tribute 
and had furnished men for the Turkish armies. The Turks in 
turn treated the Greeks with contempt and had stolen away their 
fairest women. Inspired by the French Revolution and incensed 
that the Congress of Vienna had done nothing for them, the Greeks 
in 1 82 1 rose against their oppressors. Almost at a stroke they 
gained possession of More'a, known in ancient history as the Pelo- 
ponnesus, and of Central Greece. The Turkish sultan was 
enraged at their success and the next year he sent large armies 
into the revolted territory. The Greeks fought with fierce 
bravery from their mountain defiles and on the sea, where they 
destroyed many Turkish vessels with their fire ships. 

1 England's object was not only to protect liberty, but also to keep her lucrative 
trade with South America from falling under Spanish control. 



Uprising in Southern Europe 499 

_ For years the contest raged with cruel ferocity : thousands of 
captives were massacred in cold blood by both sides. The people 
of Europe generally sympathized with the Greeks in their heroic 
struggle for liberty ; but rulers of the Metternich school saw in it 
another French Revolution and they would have aided the Turks 
if they dared. The sultan in desperation called to his aid his 
powerful vassal, the Pasha of Egypt, and the Greeks, after six 




House where Byron Died 



years of a struggle as desperate as any people ever endured, were 
about to be overwhelmed when help came at last. 

In England the sympathy with the Greeks was widespread, and 
it was increased by Lord Byron, the most popular poet of his 
time. His stirring lyric beginning, 

" The Isles of Greece, the Isles of Greece, 
Where burning Sappho loved and sung," 

touched the hearts of his countrymen. 

But Byron did more. He went to Greece to offer his life in the 
cause of liberty. Thousands of others were led to do the same. 
At length the British government was moved to act ; also Russia, 

1 Byron died in Greece of fever in 1824. 



500 Europe after the Revolution 

for the Russians hated the Turks, and the Greeks were of the 
same rehgion as the Russians. France then joined them, and the 
three nations sent a fleet to Grecian waters. In October, 1827, the 
great naval battle of Navarino (na-va-re'no) took place, in which 
the allied fleet annihilated the Turkish fleet. Turkey was forced 
to yield and in 1829 Greece was granted independence. 

IV. France from 181 5 to 1830 

442. Reign of Louis XVIII. — On the final fall of Napoleon at 
Waterloo the fat old king, Louis XVIII (sec. 430), returned to 
Paris and resumed his reign. He awakened no enthusiasm. The 
people cared nothing for the Bourbons. 

Louis was a man of good common sense, and he was no tyrant. 
He recognized the main principles of the Revolution, equal rights 
before the law, liberty of the press, and religious toleration. He 
granted the people a constitution which provided for a legislature 
of two houses, one of which was elected by the people who paid a 
certain amount of taxes. The king was wise enough to see that 
it was impossible to restore the old condition of absolutism and 
divine right, even if he wished to do so ; but he kept up the fiction 
of absolutism by insisting that the constitution was granted from 
the goodness of his heart and not because the people had any 
right to it. 

With the restoration of the Bourbons to the French throne 
the exiled nobles returned by thousands. They expected to enjoy 
all their old privileges and hoped to wipe out all traces of the 
Revolution. Their leader was the king's younger brother, who 
later succeeded to the throne as Charles X. King Louis opposed 
their demands as best he could, but he grew feeble and scarcely 
able to resist them. When he died in 1824, the reactionary party 
had gained almost complete control. 

443. Charles X, the Last of the Bourbon Dynasty (i 824-1 830). 
— The last three of the famous Bourbon djoiasty to wear the 
French crown were the three brothers, Louis XVI, guillotined in 



France from 1815 to 1830 501 

1793, Louis XVIII, and Charles X. No more reactionary king 
ever sat on the French throne than Charles. His twenty-five 
years of exile had taught him nothing. He believed in the divine 
right of kings. He cared nothing for the rights of the people, 
and he set out to restore the church and the nobility to the posi- 
tion they had held before the Revolution. But a bowstring drawn 
too taut will break. At first he was apparently successful. He 
secured a grant of two hundred million dollars from the public 
treasury to repay the returned nobles for the property they had 
lost in the Revolution. The aristocratic party was in full control, 
but there was a vigorous liberal minority that was rapidly becom- 
ing a majority. In the elections of 1830, though only the rich 
had the right to vote, the liberals won the new Chamber of 
Deputies by a large majority. At such a moment any one but 
a blunt-minded Bourbon would have yielded to the will of the 
people, but the obstinate Charles X would concede nothing. Even 
Mettemich advised him to remember 1789. Instead he issued 
decrees that cost him his throne, drove him into exile, and brought 
on the Revolution of 1830. A further notice of this must be left 
to a later chapter (sec. 469). 

Questions and Topics. — I. In what respect did the Napoleonic 
wars benefit Germany? To what degree were the former French 
boundaries restored by the Congress of Vienna? What other important 
territorial changes were made? What was done with Poland? 

II. How did Metternich suppress freedom of speech and of the press? 
What are the benefits of a free press in any country? 

III. Describe the revolt in Spain and its suppression. What was 
the origin of the Monroe Doctrine? Write an essay on the Greek 
revolution. 

IV. Give an estimate of Louis XVIII ; of Charles X. 

Events and Dates. — Meeting of the Congress of Vienna, 1814, 
181 5. Monroe Doctrine promulgated, 1823. Greece becomes inde- 
pendent of Turkey, 1829. 

For Fixrther Reading. — Andrews, Historical Development of Modern Eu- 
rope. Fyffe, History of Modern Europe. Seignobos, Political History of Eu- 
rope since 1814. Phillips, Modern Europe, iSi^-iSgg. 



CHAPTER XXXVI 

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 

I. The Great Inventions 

444. Conditions before the Industrial Change. — On a pre- 
ceding page (sec. 371) the remarkable fact was noted that with 
all man's progress there had been little improvement in the means 
of travel and transportation and in the implements of agriculture 
and manufacturing, from the days of the Roman Empire, or even 
from the time of ancient Egypt and Babylonia, down to about 
1750. Spinning and weaving were still done by hand and the 
farmer still scratched the ground with a clumsy wooden plow. 
The change that has come since then has been marvelous. It 
had its beginning in the same half century that brought the French 
Revolution, and it has affected the world even more than that 
mighty political upheaval. 

The cotton industry in England dates from about the time of 
Charles I. Cotton was imported from India, and importers 
and others interested in cotton were bitterly opposed by the men 
of the woolen and linen industries. People wearing cotton were 
attacked on the streets. Parliament passed laws prohibiting the 
use of cotton, but the people evaded the laws and finally (1774) 
the last of the anti-cotton laws was repealed. 

The methods of transportation were very crude in the eight- 
eenth century in all European countries. Six horses were re- 
quired to draw a loaded coach and even then it often stuck in 
the mud. People usually traveled on horseback. Grain was 
reaped with the scythe and the sickle and threshed with jointed 
sticks called flails, or it was trodden out on barn floors by oxen 
or horses, as in the old Egyptian days. 

502 



The Great Inventions 503 

The old guild system had gradually disappeared, and in the 
textile industries the domestic system took its place. The family 
became the unit in manufacturing. Usually the family engaged 
in spinning and weaving had also a little farm of a few acres on 
which they made part of their living. A man would own his 
instruments of spinning and weaving, would buy his wool and 
linen, and, aided by his wife and children, would turn out cloth 
and sell it to dealers. This domestic system prevailed until the 
factory system, to be noticed later, took its place. 

445. Early Improvements. — Among the first improvements 
were those in agriculture. It was discovered that a rotation of 
crops was an advantage, also that beets and turnips could be 
raised without injury to the soil on land formerly left fallow to 
" rest." This enabled the farmer to raise more live stock, which 
in turn made more fertilizer for the soil. 

Threshing machines came into use just before the French Revo- 
lution, and the iron plow about 1800. This enabled the farmer 
to plow deeper and to secure much better results from his farm 
than were possible with the old wooden plow. 

Improved road building began in England about 1750. Turn- 
pikes were built between the larger cities. A Scotchman named 
McAdam, whose name has been perpetuated in the macadamized 
road, was one of the leading road builders of the time. 

446. Invention of the Steam Engine. — In both transportation 
and manufacturing, a revolution was made possible by the in- 
vention of the steam engine, for which the world is chiefly indebted 
to James Watt (sec. 372). The old engine on which Watt made 
improvements was little more than a cylinder and piston, had 
only an up-and-down stroke, was slow in movement and wasteful 
of fuel. Watt corrected these defects and later improved his 
first models so as to make his engine turn wheels. This made 
it practicable and applicable to transportation and all sorts of 
manufacturing machinery. Improvements in the production of 
iron soon followed. The use of coke made from coal took the 
place of charcoal in the smelting of iron, and this with the improve- 



504 The Industrial Revolution 

ments in mining reduced the cost of steam engines. Before the 
invention of the steam engine, windmills, water wheels, and beasts 
of burden lightened man's work to some degree, but nearly all 
machines, such as then existed, were run by human muscular 
power. 

447. The Spinning Jenny and the Power Loom. — About 
a century before the invention of the steam engine by Watt, 
the spinning wheel had been invented, for making thread or yarn 
from wool or other fiber. It took the place of the old distafif 
and spindle, which had been in use since ancient times. Weaving 
was a cumbersome process before the invention of the " flying 
shuttle" by John Kay in 1733; in weaving wide breadths of 
cloth the shuttle had to be thrown from one side to the other by 
two persons. The spinning wheel could produce only one thread 
at a time, and one weaver, after Kay's invention, could keep 
seven or eight spinners busy. 

The next great want, improved methods of spinning, was met 
by James Hargreaves, a weaver, who invented the " spinning 
jenny " about 1765. By this device eight spindles set upright in 
a row were revolved by means of a wheel mounted on a frame. 
The spinning jenny was so simple that a child could work it, and 
it did the work of about ten of the old spinning wheels. But 
the end had not been reached. Other important improvements 
were soon to follow. 

In 1 77 1 Richard Arkwright, a barber, invented a new kind of 
spinner. Besides the spindles, as in Hargreaves's jenny, Ark- 
wright used a series of rollers which drew out the threads by revolv- 
ing at different rates. This he called a " water frame " because 
it was run by water power. A few years later Samuel Crompton 
combined the best features of the jenny and the water frame and 
produced a machine that he called the " mule." With the mule 
one spinner could produce at least 150 threads at a time.^ 

These wonderful improvements in spinning left the weavers 

1 With the great spinning machines'of the present time one man, aided by two 
or three children, can spin 12,000 threadg'at a time. 



The Great Inventions 



505 



far behind, and in order that they might keep pace with the 
spinners a weaving machine had to be invented. It was soon 
forthcoming. 

Edmund Cartwright, a clergyman, set himself the task of 
supplying the need . He invented the power loom ( 1 7 8 5 ), by which 
the shuttle is thrown from side to side automatically. The 
power loom enabled the weavers to keep up with the spinners, 
and by the use of these various inventions with later improve- 




Arkwright's First Spinning Frame 



ments the art of cloth making was wonderfully changed. One 
person could do what had required more than a hundred before 
the time of the inventions.^ 

The next great step was to apply the steam engine to the running 
of the new machines. At first they were run by water power, 
but this was uncertain and in many places it was not available. 

1 Of equal importance with these inventions was~ the cotton gin, invented by 
Eli Whitney, an American, in 1794, for separating cotton fiber from the seed. The 
cotton gin enabled one person to do the work of 250 before its invention. 
EL. M. T. — 33 



5o6 The Industrial Revolution 

About 1785 the problem of motive power was solved by the steam 
engine, which by the use of shafts and cranks was made to turn 
wheels. It was first applied to spinning machines and later to 
all sorts of machinery. 

One great result of the new machinery was to lessen the cost of 
cloth and many other manufactured articles. 



II. The Rise of the Factory System 

448. Changes in the Lives of th« Workers. — The tremendous 
change in the industrial world brought about by the invention of 
machinery was not an unmixed good. It increased the wealth 
of the nations by leaps and bounds, but it brought distress rather 
than happiness to the common workers. The domestic system 
was replaced by the factory system. The rural homes of the spin- 
ners and the weavers, who had lived on their little farms, owned 
their own looms and wheels and sold their own products, were 
broken up. The workmen could not afford to purchase the ex- 
pensive machinery nor could they, with the old methods, compete 
with the products of the new. In some places the people rose in 
riot against the new order, declaring that the new inventions 
took the bread out of their mouths. They attacked factories 
and destroyed machinery. • Hargreaves, inventor of the spinning 
jenny, was mobbed by his fellow -workmen and driven from his 
home. 

But the wheels of progress cannot be stopped because some- 
body is in the way. Scarcely an important law is passed or a 
new machine invented that does not bring hardship to somebody. 

449. The Factories. — The new machinery was costly. Only 
the rich could afford to purchase it. Factories were built in the 
cities and equipped with the necessary machinery. Thereby 
two new classes were added to society — the rich manufacturer 
or capitalist, and the common laborer who worked in his factory. 

The spinners and weavers, unable to compete with the factory, 
had to give up their cottage homes and move to the city and 



The Rise of the Factory System 507 

become factory workers. Long monotonous rows of tenement 
houses were built for them, without the cheering garden and often 
without even a foot of green grass in front. No longer were the 
workers their own masters ; they had lost their independence. 
They did not own the factory nor the machinery, and they had 
nothing to do with controlling or selling the product of their work. 
They worked for wages. 

The factory was owned by a capitalist, or perhaps a company 
of them forming a corporation. Often the capitalist lived in a 
distant city and saw little or nothing of the laborers. The fac- 
tory was directed by a hired manager, and the standing of the 
manager with his employer depended on the size of the dividends 
the factory would yield. He had every incentive, therefore, 
to get as much as possible out of the workers, and the result was 
long hours, hard work, and low wages. 

The medieval guild system (sec. 242), in which the employer 
and employee lived and worked in harmony, was followed by 
the domestic system (sec. 444), and this gave way in turn to the 
factory system. 

450. Labor and Capital. — One of the most serious problems 
in our modern life is that which arises from the relations between 
capital and labor, or more accurately, between capitalists and 
laborers. It is an outgrowth of the factory system. 

The change that came to the workman was not a happy one. 
In passing from the domestic to the factory system he lost not 
only his rural home and his independence, he was even obliged 
to sacrifice his skill as a workman. Under the old system he 
took pride in the work of his hands, in turning out better and 
better products ; under the new he lost his skill, his pride in aim- 
ing at perfection ; he became only a part of a great machine with 
its monotonous, ceaseless hum of turning wheels from morning 
till night. 

Employed in the factories were great numbers of women and 
children as well as men. In the beginning the toil was arduous 
and the hours were long, often fourteen or even sixteen a day. 



5o8 The Industrial Revolution 

At length the government had to interfere and pass a series of 
" factory laws," to be noticed in our next chapter. 

The laborer and the capitalist were dependent each upon the 
other. Under the new system neither could get along without 
the other ; but their conditions in life were so unlike that they 
became hostile to each other. Under the old guild system or 
the domestic system a paid workman looked forward to the time 
when he would become a master, but the factory system offered 
little opportunity to the common workman. His life day after 
day and year after year was a continuous grind, the work in itself 
being monotonous and uninteresting. His wages were low and 
his home was perhaps a cellar or a garret. 

The capitalist concerned himself but little about the comfort 
and welfare of his employees. He was in a race for wealth, and 
the harder they toiled the greater were his dividends. No wonder 
they came to hate their employer and no wonder that a bond of 
sympathy between the two classes was not easy to establish. 

The labor problem has never been fully solved in any country, 
but since the early times of the factory system labor conditions 
have changed greatly for the better. One cause of this change 
is the coming into existence of labor organizations, called trade 
unions. In many countries the laborers have formed unions, 
from which, unlike the old guild, the employer is rigidly excluded. 
The union may benefit the worker in many ways, but its chief 
function is to keep up wages. The union and not the individual 
worker bargains with the capitalist or corporation, and between 
them they agree on a wage scale which, it is safe to say, is higher 
than it would be if each worker had to drive a separate bargain 
with the employer. 

ni. Improvements in Transportation — Canals, Steam- 
boats, Railways 

451. Construction of Canals. — The marvelous advance in 
manufacturing that came with the factory system and the intro- 



Improvements in Transportation 509 

duction of machinery would have been of less significance but 
for the improvements in transportation. To bring the raw ma- 
terial to the factory and to carry away the finished product better 
means of transportation were needed than the country roads or 
even the turnpike afforded. The first improvement came in 
the form of canals. 

The use of artificial waterways dates back to antiquity. In 
Egypt and Babylonia canals were used for transportation. In 
modem times Prussia and France had taken the lead. The 
first canal in England, with locks by which a boat could be raised 
from a lower to a higher level, was constructed in 1761 between 
Manchester and a coal mine seven miles away. 

During the forty years following this beginning, canal building 
was pushed with great vigor in England, and by 1800 the country 
was well supplied with artificial waterways. A boat was drawn 
by one or more horses driven on a towpath beside the canal. 
Bulky goods — ores, grain, lumber, machinery, and the products 
of the factory — could be transported by means of the canal 
for a fraction of the former cost. The canal was almost the only 
great improvement of the time that did not employ the steam 
engine. 

452. Steam Navigation. — The adaptation of the steam 
engine to the moving of vessels on the water is one of the great 
achievements of modem times. The sailing vessels of Columbus 
or of William Penn required two or three months to cross the 
Atlantic. The modern " ocean greyhound," carrying a hundred 
times as great a load, will make the same journey in five days. 
The change was wrought by steam navigation. 

The name of Robert Fulton, the American inventor, is always 
associated with this subject. Fulton, after making some fruit- 
less efforts on the Seine River in France, won his great vic- 
tory on the Hudson in 1807.^ He had built the Clermont, which, 
propelled by a steam engine brought from England, moved up- 

1 Fulton improved on the work of John Fitch, a greater genius, who had experi- 
mented on the Delaware about twenty years earlier. 



5IO The Industrial Revolution 

stream from New York to Albany at the rate of four miles an 
hour. The great problem was solved. From that day to the 
present the building of steam vessels has been one of the great 
industries of the world. Soon after Fulton's success on the 
Hudson the demand for the new craft was widespread, and 
within the next quarter century the rivers, lakes, and bays of 
Europe and America were dotted with pufifing steamboats. It 
was not until 1837 that the first steamship crossed the Atlantic 
Ocean. 

453. Building of the Railroads. — More important even than 
steam navigation is transportation by railroads, which soon fol- 
lowed. Since a steam engine could turn wheels and move the 
machinery of a factory or of a steamboat, why should it not be 
applied to a locomotive? The problem of the steamboat was 
solved in America ; that of the railroads reached its first solution 
in England. 

As the name of Robert Fulton is inseparably linked with the 
invention of the steamboat, so the name of George Stephenson 
(ste'ven-son) will always be connected with the beginnings of steam 
railways. Stephenson, the son of a miner, was too poor to go 
to school, but he taught himself to read and write. He applied 
himself to the task of adapting Watt's engine to the moving of 
coal from the mines. His first locomotive was completed in 18 14 
and was used only for hauling freight. But in 1825 he perfected 
a line in northern England between Darlington and Stockton, 
twelve miles apart, for the carrying of both passengers and freight. 
The rails at first were made of wood with iron bands or straps 
nailed on top to protect them. 

Thus began one of the great industries of modern times, one 
that has revolutionized the commerce of the world in all civiUzed 
lands. In 1828 the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was begun in 
America, but at first horses and even sails as well as engines were 
employed in moving coaches. In 1830 a railway line was opened 
between Liverpool and Manchester and a few years later it was 
extended to London. France made a beginning of building rail- 



I 



Improvements in Transportation 



5" 

ways as early as 1828. In Bavaria and Belgium a beginning was 
made in 1835. Prussia began a little later, but once begun the 
work of constructing railways there went on rapidly. Europe 
now has nearly as many railways as the United States. In Ger- 
many, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy, and some other countries 
the railways are chiefly owned and operated by the government. 





The "Rocket" and a Modern English Locomotive 



The "Rocket," the best of Stephenson's early locomotives, 
was a four-wheel engine supported on springs, with a boiler 
six feet long. It weighed four and a quarter tons, and in 
the first run on the Liverpool and Manchester railway it 
made an average speed of fifteen miles an hour. The mod- 
ern English locomotive weighs nearly sixty tons, and travels 
several times as fast as the little " Rocket." 



Hand in hand with the development of the steamboat and the 
railway came greater facilities in communication, almost as 
important as either in our modern life. First came the reduc- 
tion of letter postage to the two-cent basis iji England, through 
the efforts of Rowland Hill, in 1839. The example of reducing 
postage was soon followed in other countries. One may now send 
a letter for two cents from San Francisco to London, or from 
South Africa to British Columbia. About 1 840 the electric tele- 
graph was invented, and the telephone in 1876 (both American 
inventions), and to these was added wireless telegraphy in 1907 
by Marco'ni. 

The above-mentioned inventions affecting industries, transpor- 
tation, and communication are but a few of the most important 
among the thousands of inventions and improvements that have 
caused the wonderful progress of the world in the last century 
and a half. 



512 The Industrial Revolution 

IV. Results of the Industrial Revolution 

454. Making the World's Living. — The wealth of the nations 
has increased many fold since the beginning of the industrial 
revolution. Through the invention of machinery man has bridled 
the forces of nature and made them work for him. A notable 
characteristic of natural force is its tirelessness. Men and ani- 
mals soon become weary with toil. Nature never does. A loco- 
motive will draw a heavy train for hours without rest and is never 
weary. A factory may run day and night ; it needs no rest. 
Through the use of natural forces, manipulated by machinery, 
the world makes its living with a fraction of the human energy 
before required. 

But a machine is utterly blind and devoid of sense. It is 
worthless without the human attendant. ■ A family horse may 
keep the road and take you safely home on the darkest night, 
but the automobile never will. It requires the guidance of the 
human hand. So it is with all kinds of machinery, and from this 
fact vast numbers of workers are required to carry on the world's 
work. 

We have noticed that the change to the worker that came with 
the new system was in some respects a change for the worse ; 
but in two respects he has benefited. First, he has the advantage 
of cheaper commodities necessary to his daily life ; and second, 
he enjoys the paved and lighted streets and the sanitary condi- 
tions of the city, such as were impossible before the increased 
wealth was created by the new system. 

455. The World's Commerce. — Since the tremendous increase 
in the quantity of manufactured goods and their easy transporta- 
tion by canals, steamships, and railroads, the nations have come 
to trade with one another on an immense scale. The world's 
international trade in the Middle Age was not so great in a 
whole year as it is now in one day. The people of any country 
may now enjoy the products of all other countries, and no one 
pretends to satisfy his own wants by his own labor. The farmer 



Results of the Industrial Revolution 513 

no longer makes his own wagons and harness and clothing. He 
buys these things from the factory and in turn he raises more 
products of the farm for the market. 

Thousands of vessels ply the waters of all seas, carrying the 
products of farm and factory from land to land, while the rail- 
roads furnish inland transportation in all civilized countries. 
We think nothing of finding on our tables every day coffee from 
Brazil, tea from China, bananas from Central America, oranges 
from California, and fish from Alaska — a result of the fact that 
the industrial revolution has made the world a commercial unit. 

The great inventions and improvements described in this 
chapter did not cease with the industrial revolution. From that 
time to the present the progress has continued, as we shall notice 
in a later chapter (sees. 558, 559). 

Questions and Topics. — I. Can you give a reason for the slow- 
progress in inventions? Why did Parliament pass laws prohibiting 
the use of cotton? Compare such laws with our law laying a tax on 
oleomargarine. Describe the domestic system. Describe improve- 
ments in farming and road building. On what principle did Watt 
base his steam engine? Describe the spinning jenny, the water frame, 
the mule, the power loom. 

II. In what way were the workers worse off on account of the new 
inventions? Discuss the early relations between the capitalist and the 
laborer. What is a labor union ? 

III. Describe the era of canals and the beginning of steam naviga- 
tion. Who was George Stephenson? What were the improvements of 
this period in the means of communication ? 

IV. What is meant by bridling the forces of nature? In what 
.respects is a laborer benefited by the new conditions? What are the 

advantages of international trade ? 

Events. — Replacing of the guild system by the domestic system and 
the domestic system by the factory system. The canal system followed 
by steam transportation. 

For Further Reading. — Wallace, The Progress of the Century, and The 
Wonderful Century. Gibbins, Economic and Industrial Progress of the Century. 



THE PROGRESS OF DEMOCRACY 

CHAPTER XXXVII 
NINETEENTH CENTURY REFORMS IN GREAT BRITAIN 

I. Before the Great Reforms 

456. The Last of the Georges. — After a reign of sixty years 
King George III of Great Britain (grandson of George II), died 
in 1820 and left the British throne to his son, George IV. For 
many years the aged king had been an imbecile and the son had 
been regent. But neither the king nor the regent had any great 
control of the government after George Ill's attempt at personal 
rule was broken down by his failure to subdue the American 
colonies in the Revolutionary War (1775-1783). Besides the 
many important events of his reign already mentioned, one 
great change was made in the British government. In 1800 
the Irish Parliament was induced to disband and Ireland was 
given representation in the British Parliament. From this time 
on, the full name of the country was the United Kingdom of 
Great Britain and Ireland, although it was commonly called the 
United Kingdom, or Great Britain, or even England. 

All the Georges were men of mediocre ability, and the weakest 
of them was George IV (1820-1830). He was narrow and selfish 
and vain. He never won the respect of the people, and their 
general contempt was reflected by Parliament when it refused 
his urgent request to grant him a divorce from the queen. But 
England had long since passed the time when her government 
and prosperity depended on the character of her sovereign. 

The country was on the verge of some important reforms, in- 
spired in part by the French Revolution, but delayed by the wars 
with Napoleon and by the influence of the school of Metternich. 

The most brilliant English statesman in the eighteen-twenties 

514 



British Parliamentary Reform in 1832 515 

was George Canning, the man who first proposed to our American 
President what we call the Monroe Doctrine. Canning was 
also the one who led Great Britain to take part in the Greek war 
against the Turks. But he did not live to witness the outcome.^ 
Soon after Canning's death the Duke of Wellington, the conqueror 
of Napoleon at Waterloo, became premier. 

457. Repeal of the Test Act ; Catholic Emancipation. — 
The two early reforms that paved the way for greater reforms 
in the following decade were the repeal of the Test Act (1828) 
and the removing of the disabilities of the Catholics (1829). 

The Test Act had been placed on the statute books in the 
time of Charles II (1673). It was meant to exclude Catholics 
and Protestant dissenters from holding office by requiring office- 
holders to take the communion of the established Church of 
England. For a hundred years and more it had not been strictly 
enforced. It was now repealed after being on the statute books 
for 155 years. 

This act of Parliament, however, did not relieve the Catholics, 
owing to other disabling laws, some of which dated back as far 
as the Tudors. A Roman Catholic was debarred from many 
privileges, including the right to serve in Parliament. The repeal 
of these laws, known as the Catholic Emancipation Act, was 
brought about largely by the brilliant Irish orator, Daniel O'Con- 
nell. With a masterly hand O'Connell organized his countr}Tnen, 
held great meetings and swayed the crowds with his eloquence. 
The bill as finally passed removed many disabilities from the 
Catholic people, but they were still excluded from the British 
thrpne and from a few other high positions. 

II. Parliamentary Reform in 1832 

458. Need of Reform. — The greatest of British reforms in 
centuries was the reform of Parliament in 1832. It had been 

1 Canning had long been a leading figure in the Cabinet, but he held the 
premiership only four months (April-August, 1827) during the last year of his 
life. 



5i6 The Progress of Democracy 

talked of for a hundred years. It had been the dream of WiUiam 
Pitt the younger, but various causes had prevented that great 
statesman from making his dream a reahty. For hundreds of 
years there had been no redistributing of the seats in Parhament 
as the shifting of the population demanded. A town or district 
that had one or two representatives in Parliament would con- 
tinue to send the same number though it had fallen into decay 
and ceased to have inhabitants. An example or two will illus- 
trate. 

Old Sarum in southern England was an extreme case. Far 
back in the time of Edward III it had been a town with two 
representatives in the House of Commons. The town fell to 
ruin, not an inhabitant was left, and yet, strange to say, the land- 
lord who owned the site continued to send two members to Parlia- 
ment! Seaford was another " town " with two members in the 
Commons and no inhabitants. In one district there was only 
one voter. He met himself in convention, made a motion that 
he be sent to Parliament, seconded and put the motion. It was 
carried unanimously. More than half the members of the Com- 
mons were controlled by peers and landlords who gave or sold 
them their office.^ 

This is but half the story. The other half is equally astonish- 
ing. The great cities of Leeds, Birmingham, Manchester, and 
Sheffield, which had grown up within two hundred years, had 
no representation in Parliament. Certainly that body needed 
reorganizing. Though it contained many able and patriotic 
men, it was practically a Parliament of landlords. It did not 
fairly represent the English people. 

459- Opposing Parties. — As is usual in most countries, there 
was a progressive party that favored reform and a conservative 
party that opposed it. The two great political organizations 
were the Whig party, which included most of the progressives, 
and the Tory party, to which the majority of the conse.rvatives 

1 The insignificant places that sent members were known as "pocket bor- 
oughs," and those in which the seat was sold were called "rotten boroughs." 



British Parliamentary Reform in 1832 517 

belonged. The leader of the Tory party at this time was the 
Duke of Wellington. Honored as he was by the people for his 
great services in war, he ^as a born aristocrat and cared little 
for the right's of the people. In a notable speech in 1830 the 
duke resisted all change, declaring that the old system was per- 
fect and " no better system could be devised by the wit of man." 
The speech had a profound effect on the country. It forced 
Wellington's resignation as premier and ended his political career. 

Earl Grey, a tireless Whig leader who had been in public life 
for many years, was then called on to become^premier and to form 
a Cabinet. He consented on the condition that parliamentary 
reform be made the main question. 

Aside from those who, like Wellington, were aristocrats by 
temperament, there were two classes bitterly opposed to reform ; 
first, the peers and landlords who controlled so many members 
of the Commons, and second, those members who in voting for 
reform would vote to abolish the seats they occupied. With 
"these forces in the opposition it is doubtful if any reform bill 
would have been enacted but for the pressure from without. 
The people rose in riotous fury and Parliament heeded the de- 
mands of its master. 

460. The British Government. — It will be well to review here 
the method of working of the British government. An Amer- 
ican Congress always serves the full time for which it is elected. 
A British Parliament seldom does so. In our country the execu- 
tive and legislative branches are entirely separate ; in Great 
Britain they are combined, the premier with his Cabinet being 
at the head of both. 

The British premier, who is the leader of the party in power, 
proposes laws to the House of Commons. If any important 
measure of his fails to pass, either he and all his Cabinet resign, 
or else Parliament is dissolved and a new election is held without 
delay. If the Cabinet resigns, some leader who can control a 
majority of the Commons may be appointed premier and will 
form a new Cabinet. 



5i8 



The Progress of Democracy 



Parliament may be dissolved at any time in the year, no matter 
how short its tenure has been. The main issue in the election is 
the measure that was defeated by -the old Parliament. The 
dissolving of Parliament because of the loss of a measure and order- 
ing a new election is called " appealing to the country." If the 
premier's party is successful in the new election he continues in 
his office as premier, and proceeds to have the new Parliament 




Interior of the House of Commons 

As it appeared before it was burned in 1834. The present Houses of Parliament, 
which are occupied by both Lords and Commons, were erected after 1840. (Com- 
pare with picture on page 606.) 

pass the measure that the old one had defeated. If the opposing 
party wins, its leader becomes premier, that particular measure 
is not brought up, and the new Parliament proceeds to other busi- 
ness. There is some truth in the boast of the British that their 
government is more democratic than ours 

461. Passage of the Reform Bill. — Earl Grey was the premier, 
supported by the Whig majority in the Parliament that met in 
1830. He had been in the forefront of public life for more than 
forty years, but the crowning work of his long career was the 



British Parliamentary Reform in 1832 519 

parliamentary reform bill. His most faithful helper was Lord 
John Russell, who introduced the bill and made an unanswerable 
speech in its support. But on its second reading (all bills must 
be read and passed three times in order to become laws), it passed 
by a majority of only one. 

Grey believed the margin too small to insure the safety of the 
bill. He thought it best to dissolve Parliament and appeal to the 
country. The king opposed this but was forced to give way, 
and a new election was held.^ In spite of the pocket boroughs 
the Whigs won a great victory. Russell again introduced the 
reform bill and it passed by a majority of more than a hundred. 
But in the House of Lords it was defeated by a majority of forty- 
one. 

Would the people of Great Britain permit this staid old body 
of dignitaries which represented nothing but wealth and titles 
to thwart their will and bring all their efforts to naught ? When 
the people are determined they can get what they want from their 
lawmakers, and the British people had determined to have a 
reform of Parliament. As the news of the defeat spread over the 
land the people broke into riot and violence. The carriages of 
the lords were stoned in the streets of London. Tumultuous 
meetings were held in many towns, castles were burned, the 
country was on the verge of rebellion or even anarchy. 

In the face of all this the lords held firm for many months and 
the rioting continued. Earl Grey resigned. The king tried to 
form a Tory Cabinet and failed. He then recalled Grey, but 
Grey refused to resume ofhce unless his Majesty would agree to 
the one method by which the House of Lords could be forced, 
namely, the creating of enough new peers to insure the passing 
of the bill. The king hesitated, but at last petulantly gave way. 

This was enough. The victory was won. The lords did not 

1 William IV, 1830-1837, was now king, having succeeded his brother, 
George IV, in 1830, at the age of 65 years. The sovereign had gradually lost 
power over Parliament. This triumph of Parliament in practically ordering its 
own dissolution was a final blow to the royal power. Parliament has since con- 
trolled the nation. 



520 The Progress of Democracy 

want a crowd of upstarts thrust into their ranks, and when the 
Commons passed the bill a third time and sent it to the upper 
house, it was promptly passed without any new peers having been 
created. The victory of the people was complete. On the 7th 
of June, 1832, the Parliamentary Reform Bill, one of the greatest 
measures in English history, became a law. 

462. The Results of the Reform. — The great reform of 1832 
was one of those basal changes in a nation's policy whose effects 
are far-reaching and permanent, though not perhaps immediately 
apparent. This Reform Bill was a great step in the direction 
of making Parliament representative of the people and no longer 
a close corporation under a few titled landlords. It gave the 
right to vote to about 650,000 men who had not been voters 
before. It took away the representation from fifty -six of the 
pocket boroughs and reduced thirty-one others from two repre- 
sentatives to one. The 143 seats thus gained were given to popu- 
lous communities and towns, some of which had had no repre- 
sentation before. 

Incidentally the great reform of 1832 brought other profound 
changes in the British government. The bill was forced through 
at the behest of public opinion and in spite of a hostile king and 
a hostile House of Lords. It ushered in the era of government 
by public opinion. Never since then has the monarch or the 
lords had much to say concerning the government of the realm. 
The House of Commons is supreme, the agent and the mouth- 
piece of the public will. 

III. Abolition of Slavery 

463. Slavery in Modern Tunes. — In preceding chapters 
we have noticed that human slavery was almost universal in 
ancient times. It had its origin in enslaving instead of killing 
captives taken in war. During the Middle Ages serfdom and 
feudalism took the place of slavery. The enslavement of negroes 
by Europeans for commercial purposes had its beginning about 



Abolition of Slavery in Great Britain 521 

half a century before Columbus discovered America. As one 
writer informs us, a Spanish trader brought with him in one of 
his voyages from the west coast of Africa to Spain, about 1442, 
ten little black boys. His intention was to exhibit them to his 
countrymen and take them back to their people on his next 
voyage. But when some rich Spaniards offered him money for 
them he sold them. On his next voyage he brought more ne- 
groes and found a ready market for them, and within a few years 
other traders were in the same business. Negro slavery spread 
to nearly all the countries in Europe, and it was introduced into 
Central and South America a hundred years before the founding 
of Jamestown, Virginia. 

At the close of the American Revolutionary War all our thirteen 
states had slaves, but those in the north gradually emancipated 
them while the southern states did not. Until the African trade 
was stopped our southern states and the West Indies constituted 
the greatest slave market in the world. 

464. The Three Stages in England. — In the countries of 
Europe the slaves were few as compared with America. In 
England there were probably about 14,000 who had chanced 
to be left here and there through the operations of the traders. 

The first of the three stages or epochs of slavery in Great. 
Britain and her colonies ended with the famous decision of Lord 
Mansfield in 1772. There was no law in England for or against 
slavery, and it was believed that if tested in the courts it would 
be condemned as an evil and abolished. A case known as the 
Somerset case was brought before Lord Chief Justice Mansfield 
(in 1772). His decision set free every slave in England, but did 
not affect the slave trade nor slavery in the British colonies. 

The second great step was the abolishing of the slave trade. 
There is no darker page in history than that which tells of the 
African slave trade. The inhuman traders would kidnap or pur- 
chase of the so-called negro " kings " great numbers of blacks 
and carry them to the markets of the West Indies and elsewhere. 
They were packed in the dark hold of a ship in a manner so horrible 
EL, M. T. — 34 



522 The Progress of Democracy 

that great numbers of them died on the voyage. One trader 
threw 132 negroes overboard in order to collect the insurance. 
To rouse the British public against this nefarious business 
Thomas Clarkson spent many years of his life, sacrificing his 
health and his fortune. After the subject had been before Parlia- 
ment at intervals for twenty years a law was passed forbidding 
any slave ship to clear from a British port or land a slave in 
any British colony. This law was enacted in 1807, the same year 
in which the American Congress passed a law prohibiting the 
African slave trade. 

The third and final act came in 1833, the year following the 
Parliamentary Reform. It had taken a quarter of a century 
after the passage of the slave-trade act in 1807 to awaken the 
people to a vital interest in the wretched creatures in the West 
Indies. Stories of the cruel treatment had been published — 
stories of branding, mutilating, scourging till the back was a 
mass of raw flesh and then tying the victim in the broiling sun for 
a whole day. After years of such tutelage from unquestioned 
sources the public feeling was awakened and the demand that 
Parliament act became irresistible. In August, 1833, a law was 
passed freeing all slaves in all British colonies gradually within 
the next few years, and a sum equal to about $100,000,000 was 
set apart to pay the slave owners for their loss. 

IV. Factory Reform 

465. The Cry of the Children. — "Do you hear the children 
weeping, O my brothers?" wrote Mrs. Browning, referring to 
the toiling children in the factories. In the chapter on the Indus- 
trial Revolution we noted the building of great factories which 
employed thousands of people, children as well as men and women. 
There are many kinds of work about a factory that a child can do, 
such as tying threads, tending machines, and packing boxes. The 
very small wages paid to children made it profitable to employ 
great numbers of them. In the large manufacturing cities of 



British Factory Reform 523 

northern England and even in. the mines thousands of children 
from six years old and upwards were employed. Some were the 
children of shiftless parents who were willing to live off the toil 
of their offspring ; others had been purchased from their inhuman 
parents or kidnaped in the slums of London. The nation at 
last was awakened to a cruel wrong, and the pressure on Parlia- 
ment for action became intense. 

In the early eighteen-thirties a committee of Parliament was 
appointed to make a searching investigation. Conditions re- 
vealed by this committee were shocking. Great numbers of 
children as young as six, seven, or eight years were compelled to 
work from fourteen to sixteen hours a day — not a moment for 
play, not an hour in school. When they came to their squalid 
homes at night and sat down to their meager supper they would 
often fall asleep at the table with the meal half finished, the want 
of sleep overpowering the want of food. In the early morning 
they often had to be awakened with switches that they might be 
in time to answer the call of the factory whistle. If they had a 
little time off on Sunday they spent it in sleep in order to rest 
their weary little bodies for the coming week of toil. Large num- 
bers of children were literally worked to death. If they did not 
sink into the grave after a few years of such hardship, they grew 
up undersized and deformed. 

466. The Factory Laws. — The first of the British " Factory 
Laws " was passed in 1 833 and was followed by others in succeeding 
years. The chief items in this splendid series of laws are as follows : 

Women and children must not be employed at all in the mines, 
nor in the factories at night, nor more than ten hours a day. 
Children under nine must not be employed, and between nine and 
fourteen only on half time — three days a week or half of each 
day — the remaining time to be spent at school. Factories must 
be kept at a reasonable temperature, ventilated, clean, and sani- 
tary. Dangerous machinery must be fenced. These laws have 
come to be rigidly enforced through the aid of government 
inspectors, some of whom are women. 



524 The Progress of Democracy 

V. Repeal of the Corn Laws, 1846 

467. The Accession of Victoria (1837). — Before the final 
reform of the first half of the century came the accession of the 
good queen whom the English people fondly remember. William 
IV, who had succeeded his brother, George IV, in 1830, reigned 
seven years. Like his brother George, William died without 
heirs, and the next heir to the throne was a young daughter of 
their younger brother, the Duke of Kent, who had died many 
years before. This daughter, Victoria, was born in 18 19, a few 
months before the death of her father, and was most carefully 
trained by her mother, the Duchess of Kent. 

At five o'clock in the morning, June 20, 1837, the Lord Chan- 
cellor of England and the Archbishop of Canterbury came to 
Kensington Palace to apprise the young princess that her uncle 
the king had died and that she was to be elevated to the British 
throne. When some hours later she met her council all were 
greatly pleased with her quiet self-possession. The people of 
England soon learned to love their girl-queen, and they continued 
to love her during her long reign of sixty-four years, the longest in 
English history.. Queen Victoria came to be a model of woman- 
hood, not only to her own people, but also for the whole civilized 
world. But she had little indeed to do with shaping the govern- 
ment of Great Britain. William IV made some pretense, though 
with little success, of holding the ministers responsible to him; 
but since his death no British sovereign has made any attempt 
at personal government. The ministry is responsible to the House 
of Commons alone, and the people are sovereign because they 
elect the members of the House of Commons. 

468. Repeal of the Corn Laws. — The reform of Parliament 
in 1 832 was a measure of great importance. It divided the govern- 
ing power between the upper and middle classes, whereas it had 
formerly rested with the upper classes alone. But it did not 
bring much relief to the ordinary workmen. 

One of the crying needs of the time was to remove the high 




Victoria Greetkd a^ Oi li,\ --- P mxfinc, ii\ II. T. Wells, R.A. 

The princess had just celebrated her eighteenth birthday when the king died, in June, 
1837. The Archbishop of Canterbury and the Lord Chancellor started at once to 
carry the news to the young sovereign. They reached Kensington Palace in the 
early dawn and knocked for some time before they roused the sleepy porter. When 
the door was opened they announced that they must see Victoria. The answer was, 
"The princess is in such sweet slumber that we do not venture to disturb her." 
Then the archbishop said, "We are come to see the queen on business of state." 
Victoria did not wait to dress, but entered the room in a loose robe, her hair hanging 
down her back. Her eyes were bright with tears as she listened to the announce- 
ment that she was the queen. 



Repeal of the British Corn Laws 525 

tariff duties on imports of wheat and other grain (which the 
English call corn) so as to make the price lower for the poor. 
The great landholders resisted, as they had resisted the reform 
of Parliament. They cared little about cheap food for the poor. 
For many years they had reaped large profits from the products 
of their great estates because of the com laws. They would 
not give up their advantage without a struggle, but they had to 
yield in the end. 

In 1 841 Sir Robert Peel, one of the greatest Englishmen of his 
time, became premier. He belonged to the conservative party that 
opposed free trade, but he was a man of high purposes and sincere 
motives. He looked into the matter thoughtfully and at length he 
saw the justice of the demand of the poor for cheaper bread. 

The two men, however, who did most to bring about the repeal 
of these obnoxious laws were Richard Cobden and John Bright. 
Both became members of Parliament, but before being elected 
to that body they had formed the Anti-Corn-Law League and 
had roused the people throughout the country by their eloquent 
speeches to great crowds gathered to hear them, and by a free 
use of the press. It was clearly proved that the high duties on 
grain, though formerly useful in encouraging farmers, had come 
to be a benefit to the rich landlord only and were very oppressive 
to the poor. 

Meanwhile Prime Minister Peel had become a convert to the 
new doctrine. He was convinced that these protective laws 
protected only the rich at the expense of the poor. Then came 

Windsor Castle, shown on the opposite page, was the home of Queen Victoria. 
This estate, near London, was presented by Edward the Confessor to the monks 
of Westminster Abbey. It was purchased later by William the Conqueror, who was 
attracted by the forest as a hunting preserve, and who built a castle in the center. 
The building was enlarged by Henry I and Henry II. Edward III had the old 
castle torn down and a new one built, and he reconstructed the Round Tower. 
This tower, the highest part of the castle, became a meeting place for the order of 
the Knights of the Garter, instituted by him, the spot being selected because of a 
' legend that King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table used to meet there. 
Under later monarchs the castle was several times extended, and the restoration 
made under Queen Victoria left it one of the finest royal residences in the world. 



526 The Progress of Democracy 

the most potent of all arguments — a famine in Ireland (1845). 
The chief food of the Irish was potatoes ; a failure of that crop 
brought great suffering, nor was it possible for them to import 
breadstuffs owing to the high prices caused by the tariff duties. 

Early in 1846 Sir Robert Peel introduced a bill to repeal the 
corn laws. He carried it through, but in so doing he sacrificed 
his popularity among the landed gentry and broke up his own 
party. The Liberal party then took up the subject and repealed 
many other tariff laws. Within the next few years the whole 
protective system was swept away and Great Britain became a 
purely free trade, country, and so it remains to this day. 

One of the immediate results of the change was a great drop 
in prices and a corresponding relief to the poor. The contention 
that free trade would ruin the factories was disproved by the 
wonderful growth of manufacturing in Great Britain since then ; 
and the assertion that protection was necessary to keep up wages 
was answered by the fact that wages remained higher in Great 
Britain than in any protected country on the Continent. 

Side Talk 

Passing of the Reform Bill. — T. B. Macaulay, the English historian 
and statesman, was a young member of Parliament at the time of the 
passing of the great Reform Bill in 1832. The following description 
of its first passing by the House of Commons is from a letter he wrote 
to a friend soon after the event : 

" Such a scene as the division of last Tuesday I never saw, and never 
expect to see again. If I should live fifty years, the impression of it 
will be as fresh and sharp in my mind as if it had just taken place. It 
was like seeing Caesar stabbed in the Senate house, or seeing Oliver 
taking the mace from the table ; a sight to be seen only once, and never 
to be forgotten. The crowd overflowed the House in every part. 
When the strangers were cleared out, and the doors locked, we had 
six hundred and eight members present — more by fifty-five than were 
ever in a division before. The ayes and noes were like two volleys of 
cannon from opposite sides of a field of battle . . ." 

The writer goes on to describe the scene after the bill had passed. 
" We set up a shout that you might have heard to Charing Cross, wav- 
ing our hats, stamping against the floor, and clapping our hands. The 



Passing of the Reform Bill 527 

tellers scarcely got through the crowd ; for the House was thronged up 
to the table, and all the floor was fluctuating with heads like the pit of 
a theater. But you might have heard a pin drop as Duncannon read 
the numbers. Then again the shouts broke out, and many of us shed 
tears. I could scarcely refrain. And the jaw of Peel feU; and the 
face of Twiss was as the face of a damned soul; and Herries looked 
like Judas taking his necktie off for the last operation. We shook 
hands, and clapped each other on the back, and went out laughing, 
crying, and huzzaing into the lobby. And no sooner were the outer 
doors opened than another shout answered that within the House. 
All the passages and the stairs into the waiting rooms were thronged 
by people who had waited till four in the morning to know the issue. 
We passed through a narrow lane between two thick masses of them; 
and all the way down they were shouting and waving their hats, till 
we got into the open air." 

Questions and Topics. — I. What can you tell of George Canning? 
the Test Act? What is meant by Catholic Emancipation? 

II. What is meant by the redistribution of the seats in Parliament? 
Describe the tendencies of the Whig and Tory parties in 1830. Write 
out a comparison between the working of the British government and 
ours. Compare the power of the American President with the British 
premier. Give an account of the passing of the Parliamentary Reform 
Bill. What is government by public opinion? How large a factor is 
public opinion in our government? 

III. Give an account of the beginning of the enslavement of negroes 
by white men in modern times. Tell about the three stages of slavery 
in Great Britain and her colonies. 

IV. Describe the condition of the children in the factories early in 
the nineteenth century. Describe the factory laws in 1833 and the 
following years. 

V. Tell the story of Victoria. Why did Sir Robert Peel change his 
mind about the tariff? What are the advantages of a tariff? The dis- 
advantages? 

Events and Dates. — Great reform in the British Parliament, 1832. 
Antislavery decision of Lord Mansfield, 1772. Abolishing of the 
British slave trade, 1807. Parliament abolishes slavery in all British 
colonies, 1833. First of the British factory laws, 1833. Accession of 
Victoria, 1837. Repeal of the corn laws, 1846. 

For Further Reading. — McCarthy, History of Our Own Times ; also the 
histories mentioned before by Fyffe, Andrews, Hayes, and Seignobos. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 
THE SECOIJD ERA OF REVOLUTION IN EUROPE 

I. The Revolution of 1830 

469. Fall and Flight of Charles X (1830). — ^ We have noticed 
that Charles X, the last of the Bourbon kings of France, refused 
to bow to the will of the people after the elections of 1830 (sec. 
443). In July he issued ordinances dissolving the new Chamber 
of Deputies before it met, and so changing the election laws as to 
favor his own party in future elections. He also greatly curbed the 
liberty of the press. Charles had declared that he would prefer 
to saw wood rather than to be a king without power Hke the king 
of England — and it was not long before he had plenty of time to 
saw wood. 

These July ordinances of Charles X made a profound sensation 
in Paris. Old soldiers, students, and laborers joined in resisting 
the high-handed measures of the king. They armed themselves, 
erected barriers of cobblestones in the streets, and determined 
to resist the king's forces. The aged Lafayette now rendered 
his last service to his country, taking charge of the revolutionists. 
For several days there was fighting in the streets. 

When the king learned that the riot was growing into a revolu- 
tion he withdrew the despised ordinances. The insurgents paid 
no heed. They captured one after another of the public buildings, 
and the frightened king, remembering the fate of his brother forty 
years before, fled the country and found refuge in England, where 
he spent the remainder of his life. 

470. Accession of Louis Philippe. — Most of the street fighters 
were republicans and would gladly have restored the conditions 
of 1793, but they were not voters and had little influence with 

528 



The Revolution of 1830 in France 



529 



the government. The middle class, many of whom were men of 
wealth and were voters, did not favor setting up a republic ; they 
were liberal royalists and their eyes turned toward Louis Philippe 
(fe-lepO, head of the House of Orleans. 

Though Louis Philippe had lived many years in exile, he had 
as a youth fought in the people's cause at the time of the first 




Entry of Louis Philippe into Paris, July 30, 1830 

Engraved from a contemporary painting by Vernet. The street iighters had thrown 
up barricades made of paving blocks, as was customary in Paris riots. 

Revolution. He was a descendant of the early Bourbons, but 
had always been regarded as a liberal. Charles X had attempted 
to leave the throne to his little grandson, who would have become 
Henry V, but the Chambers by a vote of nearly seven to one 
declared the throne vacant and then proclaimed Louis Philippe 
king of the French. 



530 The Progress of Democracy 

One significant change in the theory of the government must 
be noted. It will be remembered that Louis XVIII in assuming 
the throne in 1815 retained the theory of divine right and out of 
the generosity of his heart he gave the people whatever liberties 
they enjoyed. Louis Philippe, on the other hand, accepted the 
crown from the people, made no pretense of divine right, and 
confessed himself the servant and not the master. Within the 
fifteen years since 18 15 the sovereignty of the nation had in theory 
at least passed from the king to the people of France. Thiers 
(tyar), one of the rising young statesmen of the time, said : "It 
is from the French people that he will hold his crown." 

471. The Revolution of 1830 in Other Lands. — The people 
of . the rest of Europe were awake to the movements in France 
in 1830. When they saw that the French could so readily replace 
a tyrannical monarch with a liberal one and modify their govern- 
ment in the interests of the people, they were moved to similar 
action in various countries. 

In Great Britain the series of reforms related in the preceding 
chapter were due in part to the uprising in France. The French 
cry for more liberty was heard across the Channel and stimulated 
the English in their demand for reform. 

Still greater was the result in Belgium. That country had 
been joined to Holland at the Congress of Vienna (sec. 435). 
But the Belgians were bitterly opposed to the union. For fifteen 
years they bore impatiently the rule of the king of the Nether- 
lands. Then came the July Revolution of 1830 in France. This 
gave the Belgians the idea of revolt, and in less than a month 
their cry was, " Let us do as the French have done." A revolt 
started in Brussels soon extended to all parts of the country. 
The efforts of the king of the Netherlands first to win and then 
to force the Belgians back to their allegiance were fruitless. The 
kingdom of Belgium was founded. A Congress was elected and 
it adopted a liberal constitution, guaranteeing the two great 
principles of the French Revolution, equality before the law 
and the sovereignty of the people. The next year, 1831, Leopold 



The Revolution of 1848 in France 531 

of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (a German state), uncle of Victoria of 
England, was selected king of Belgium. The great powers recog- 
nized the new nation and guaranteed its neutrality. 

In Switzerland the people had been agitating for more liberal 
constitutions in the various cantons. The French Revolution 
of 1830 greatly stimulated them. Eleven of the most populous 
cantons yielded to their demands. 

In Italy a similar uprising was put down by an Austrian army 
under the influence of Metternich. 

In the German states, still under the spell of Metternich, the 
results of the movement were slight. 

In the kingdom of Poland (sec. 435) the result was opposite that 
in France and Belgium. The Poles of that land had been granted 
a constitution by their king the tsar of Russia, but they wanted 
independence. Influenced by the French and the Belgians, 
they made a dash for liberty, but were crushed by the Russian 
armies, and even the liberty they had was taken from them. 
Their country was incorporated in the Russian Empire.^ 

II. The Revolution of 1848 in France 

472. Government of Loviis Philippe (1830-1848). — The 
Duke of Orleans, borne into his great office as king of France 
on the revolutionary wave of 1830, called himself the " citizen 
king." He was also called the " King of the Barricades," in 
allusion to the street fights that won him his power. He sent 
his sons to the public schools ; he walked the streets unguarded, 
in citizens' garb, carrying an umbrella. By his democratic ways 
he hoped to win public favor ; but his reign was never popular. 

There were three political parties in France : first, the sup- 
porters of the king, often called the Orleanists, composed of the 
well-to-do middle class ; second, the party that favored the old 

1 The Poland here referred to was only part of the Polish provinces originally 
seized by Prussia and Austria in the partitions of Poland (sec. 366) . Other Polish 
provinces remained to those countries, and still others had already been incorporated 
with Russia. 



532 The Progress of Democracy 

Bourbon dynasty, called the "Legitimists," because they con- 
tended that the Bourbons were the legitimate heirs to the crown : 
third, the Republicans, composed chiefly of the non- voting work- 
ing classes and their sympathizers. 

The Legitimists raised an insurrection in favor of the little 
grandson of Charles X, but it was soon put down and the party 
gave little trouble thereafter. The Republicans on the other hand 
continued an active opposition throughout the reign. The last 
revolution had done little for the industrial class. Great factories 
were built and the towns increased rapidly in population. But the 
workingmen had no vote. There were but 200,000 voters in a 
population of 30,000,000. It was a government of the rich. 

The Chambers, made up of the middle class, some of whom 
were capitalist owners of the factories, refused to heed the cry 
of the workers for shorter hours, better pay, and more sanitary 
conditions. On the other hand they passed repressive laws. 
Liberty of the press was forbidden, and one Republican paper 
was prosecuted one hundred and eleven times within four years. 
But the Republicans would not be subdued. Six times they 
attempted to assassinate the king and twice they rose in insurrec- 
tion, but without success. 

473. Giiizot and Thiers. — The two leading French statesmen 
of the period were Guizot (ge-z6') and Thiers, both also noted 
historians. Both were destined to live through several revolu- 
tionary changes in the French government, and one of them, as 
we shall see in a later chapter, was to rise to the highest position 
in the gift of his country. 

Guizot, a young professor of history in the University of France, 
was called to public service by Louis XVIII, under whom he 
filled high office. "Disagreeing with Charles X, he retired from 
public life, but reentered it on the accession of Louis Philippe. 
Though a sincere man, he could not agree that the working 
classes should have a voice in the government, and he resisted 
their clamor for the ballot. 

Thiers was a Liberal ; he sympathized with the working classes. 



The Revolution of 1848 in France 



533 



He believed that the people should be sovereign and that the 
king should be their servant, not their master. He was the 
author of the famous saying, " The king reigns but does not 
govern." He and Guizot were in turn at the head of the Cabinet 
of Louis Phihppe. The king, however, was more in sympathy 
with Guizot, and from 1840 to the end of the reign Guizot re- 
mained premier, Thiers leading the opposition. 




Defending the Street Uarricades in 1848 
From a contemporary print. 

474. The Third French Revolution (1848). — The Guizot min- 
istry retained a majority in the Chambers, but the great masses 
of the people were in a state of discontent. The opposition was 
divided into factions that differed among themselves, but in one 
thing they were united — in their demand for an extension of the 
ballot. 

During the year 1847 a series of banquets were held in many 
parts of the country, the chief purpose of which was to advocate 
reform. The greatest of all these banquets was arranged to be 



534 The Progress of Democracy 

held in Paris on February 22, 1848, but the government forbade 
the meeting and also the street procession that was to precede it. 

This act of the government proved to be the spark that lit the 
flame. It brought the Revolution of 1848. The people began 
to gather in the streets in riotous mood. They looted the gun- 
shops and armed themselves. They threw up barricades and 
prepared for a contest. The government sounded a call to arms ; 
the national guards were sent against the rioters, but the guards, 
refusing to fire on the people, ran among them and joined in their 
shout, " Hurrah for reform. Down with Guizot ! " The king 
lost courage and agreed to dismiss Guizot. The crowd was for a 
time appeased and it seemed that the revolution was over. 

But the radicals were not content. Nothing but the overthrow 
of the monarchy would satisfy them. An incident occurred 
on the evening of February 23 that gave them the desired leverage. 
A band of soldiers in self-defense fired on a mob and killed a few 
people. The bodies of the dead were then loaded on carts and 
dragged through the streets to prove to all that the government 
had fired on the people. For hours the mob shouted through the 
streets, " Down with Royalty " and " Long live the Republic." 

Louis Philippe saw that his career was ended. He abdicated 
the throne in favor of his infant grandson, the Count of P-aris. 
But the people were clamoring for the abolition of the monarchy. 
A republic was proclaimed by the insurgents (February 24, 1848). 
The king, like Charles X, escaped into England, where two years 
later he died. 

475. Louis Blanc and the Socialists. — With the overthrow of 
the monarchy the Republicans elected an assembly of 900 mem- 
bers, by universal suffrage. But the Republicans were sharply 
divided into two parties. The majority were content with 
setting up a republic with universal suffrage ; but a strong mi- 
nority wanted a social revolution for the betterment of the working 
classes. This party was led by Louis Blanc (blaN), a brilliant 
editor, and, like Guizot and Thiers, a historian. His party came 
to be called Socialist. 



The Revolution of 1848 in France 535 

The SociaUsts had control of the government for a short time. 
They demanded that it employ all unemployed men, and soon 
they had 100,000 men working on fortifications. But when this 
work was completed the men were idle. The Socialists then 
sought to establish permanent national workshops, and indeed, 
to take the industries of the whole country out of the hands of 
private capitalists and turn them over to the government. 

One of the cardinal doctrines of Socialism, which has been 
advocated by a party in many countries since then, is that govern- 
ment ownership of the factories, mines, and railroads would bring 
relief to the laboring classes, lift them out of their poverty, and 
modify their hard conditions. 

The French Socialists at this time, being in a minority, soon 
lost control of affairs. Thereupon they sought by another 
revolution to overthrow the new government and install a reign 
of Socialism. The result was the bloodiest street battle ever 
seen in France, often called " The Four Days in June." It 
required four days for the government forces to subdue the 
Socialists. Thousands were slain in the streets and great numbers 
who were taken captive were shot or transported to the provinces. 
The Socialist party was for a time broken up. Louis Blanc, 
though not the instigator of the insurrection, left the country 
and went to England, where he lived for twenty years, spending 
much of his time writing a history of the French Revolution. 

476. The Presidential Election. — The assembly that had 
been elected drew up a constitution which provided for a demo- 
cratic republic and was based on the two great principles of the 
Revolution of 1789 — that all men were equal before the law 
and that all power emanates from the people. It was decided 
that there should be an Assembly or Congress of one house, of 
750 members, and a President to be elected for four years, by 
popular vote. 

In the matter of electing a president the assembly that made 
the constitution was warned to disqualify all members of the 
former reigning families, but it refused because " a law against 



536 The Progress of Democracy 

one man was unworthy of a great assembl3^" This " one man " 
was Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, son of Louis Bonaparte who had 
been king of Holland, a brother of the great Emperor Napoleon. 
The only son of Napoleon had died, and the nephew, Louis 
Napoleon, was now the heir to all the family claims. He was an 
ambitious man and twice within the past few years he had at- 
tempted to seize the government. For this reason he was con- 
sidered a dangerous man, and yet the assembly refused to dis- 
qualify him for president. 

Louis Napoleon came out boldly as a candidate and his name 
gave him a great advantage over other candidates. The ignorant 
peasants knew little of the statesmen of the time, but all knew 
well the magic name of the great Napoleon whose picture hung 
in many of their cabins. Thousands of the veterans of the 
Napoleonic wars still survived, and they were never weary of 
telling over and over the stories of the glorious victories of Auster- 
litz, of Jena, and of Wagram, which they had v/on under the 
banners of Napoleon. The name of the mighty leader was known 
in every home in France, and when that name, borne by his 
nephew, was presented on the ballot for president, there were 
few who made any other choice. On December 10, 1848, Louis 
Napoleon was elected president of France by a majority of more 
than three million votes. Thus the people invited the overthrow 
of their new-born republic. 

477. Louis Napoleon and his Coup d'Etat. — That the new 
French president was not sincere in his pretended support of the 
republic was soon made evident. The constitution provided that 
the president could not succeed himself in the great office. Na- 
poleon sought to have this changed so as to permit a reelection 
at the end of the four years. But the necessary two thirds 
majority in the Assembly he could not secure. He thereupon 
decided upon a bold stroke, nothing less than a seizing of the 
government by force, similar to the act of Napoleon I in 1799 (sec. 
416). Such an act is called in the French language a coup d'etat 
(koo da-ta'). • 



The Second Empire in France 537 

From the time of his election as president, Napoleon traveled 
about the country trading on the name and fame of his illustrious 
uncle. " The name Napoleon," he declared, "is of itself a 
program signifying order, authority, religion, and the prosperity 
of the people." He was hailed by the thoughtless crowds with 
shouts of approval — " Long live Napoleon," and even " Long 
hve the Emperor." 

Napoleon laid his plans well. In this one respect, in the power 
of intrigue, if in nothing else, he showed traces of genius. 

Even the time chosen for the coup d'etat (December 2, 1851) 
was meant to play upon pubhc opinion. It was the anniversary 
of the crowning of Napoleon I as emperor in 1804 and of the 
battle of Austerlitz in 1805. The important offices of the army 
were put in the hands of the tools and henchmen of the usurper. 
On the preceding night the leading men of the opposition were 
arrested in their homes and thrown into prison. The people of 
Paris were amazed next morning at the sight of placards posted 
over the city announcing the setting up of a new government 
with Napoleon in complete control. The Assembly was dis- 
persed by armed men, many of its members being sent to prison. 
The feeble resistance by the radicals during the next few days 
was quickly suppressed ; and their leaders were shot down or 
sent into exile. 

478. The Second Empire. — " Napoleon the Little," as Victor 
Hugo dubbed him, thus gained complete control of France. He 
framed a new constitution making himself president for ten years 
with almost unlimited power. He flattered the people by re- 
storing universal suffrage, and in the election that followed they 
approved his act of usurpation by a very large majority. 

This was the first step. The second followed a year later when 
the usurper took the title as well as the power of a monarch. On 
December 2, 1852, he was crowned as Napoleon III, Emperor of 
the French.^ This action also was ratified in a. popular vote, 

1 By a fiction similar to that of Louis XVII, the son of Napoleon I, who died in 
1832, was regarded as Napoleon II. 
EL. M. T. — 35 




Napoleon 111 and the Empress Eugenie (u-zlia-ne'y 

Photograph taken in the sixties, showing the costume of the period. 

538 



Revolution of 1848 in Central Europe 539 

by an even greater majority than that of the year before. Thus 
for a second time the French people, having achieved self-govern- 
ment through a general uprising, permitted it to sHp out of their 
hands. 1 

The Revolution of 1848 in Other Countries 

479. General Conditions. — The French Revolution in 1789 
had Httle permanent result on the Continent outside of France. 
The people were too ignorant after their long feudal servitude to 
rise and grasp their political rights, as the French had done. 
The second French Revolution, 1830, found an echo in many 
sections, though outside of Poland and Belgium the permanent 
results were not great. But the people were set to thinking ; 
they were becoming better educated and more conscious of their 
political rights ; they were waiting another opportunity. It 
came with the French revolt of 1848, which convulsed the whole 
of Central Europe from the Baltic to the Mediterranean. 

The great dominant power in Central Europe at this time was 
Austria, and Austria with its proud Hapsburg House was domi- 
nated by Metternich, " the evil genius of Europe for thirty years." 
After all her humiliating defeats by Napoleon, Austria had risen, 
on his overthrow, to unprecedented heights of power. When 
Napoleon destroyed the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the Aus- 
trian monarch took the title of Emperor of Austria. His domin- 
ions, from 1815 to 1848 and for many years afterwards, were 
more extensive than any other European country except Russia. 
They included not only what we know as Austria, inhabited 
mainly by Germans, but also Hungary, Bohemia, and extensive 
Polish, Roumanian, Jugo-Slav, and Italian provinces. And his 

1 The photograph reproduced on the opposite page was made in the early days 
of photography, when long time exposures were necessary. Though not of royal birth, 
the empress was a beautiful Spanish girl who so charmed Napoleon that he insisted 
upon marrying her. Eugenie's grandfather, WilUam Kirkpatrick, was an American 
citizen. To her influence was due much of the brilhancy of the imperial regime. 
At the fall of the Second Empire, in 1870, she fled from Paris, aided by an Ameri- 
can dentist. Dr. Evans. Eugenie died in ig2o, at the age of ninety-four. 



540 The Progress of Democracy- 

power extended far beyond his own dominions. He dominated 
nearly all of Germany and nearly all of Italy, and in every part of 
these countries the heavy, baleful hand of Metternich was felt. 

Italy for more than a thousand years had been divided into 
petty states or parceled out among the powers. Not since the 
fall of the Roman Empire and the invasions of the Goths and the 
Lombards had Italy enjoyed national unity, except for a few years 
under Napoleon. In 1848 Venice and Lombardy and various 
smaller states were Austrian territory ; the kingdom of the two 
Sicilies (or Naples), which included southern Italy and Sicily, 
was under Austrian influence, and only the Papal States and 
the kingdom of Sardinia (including Piedmont) were free from the 
control of the Hapsburgs (map following page 496). In the C3m- 
ical words of Metternich, Italy was only a " geographical expres- 
sion." The Italian people, remembering the ancient glory of their 
land, longed for national unity and for freedom from Austrian 
oppression. 

Conditions in Germany were almost as bad as in Italy. There 
were many states, almost independent, joined together loosely 
by the German Confederation, and all subject to the repressive 
influence of Austria. 

The great cry of the people of central Europe was threefold : 
(i) they wanted a voice in their own government; (2) they 
would be free from foreign domination ; and (3) they sought to 
make the state one with the race or nation. This third aspiration 
may need a word of explanation. A nation or race is a people 
who speak the same language or are of the same descent, as the 
Germans or the Hungarians. A state is the territory under one 
government. In Germany there were many states and one race, 
and the people longed for unity ; Austria, on the other hand, was 
one state with many races, and the tendency was to separation.^ 

480. The Great Uprising in Austria. — The shout of liberty 
from Paris in February, 1848, awakened echoes from a thousand 
localities in Central Europe. In none was it more significant 

1 Fyfie's History of Modern Europe, Vol. Ill, p. 3. 



Revolution of 1848 in Austria-Hungary 541 

than in Vienna, the capital of the Austrian Empire and the hotbed 
of absolutism. The Austrian Empire was an aggregation of many 
nationalities. In addition to the Germans of Austria proper there 
were Hungarians, Bohemians or Czechs, Poles, Roumanians, 
Serbs, Italians, and several other peoples (map following page 648). 
There is no "Austrian language." The official tongue was Ger- 
man, the language of Vienna, but ten or more separate peoples in 
the empire had each its own language. 

Early in March, 1848, within a few weeks after the rising in 
France, Vienna was seething with rebellion. " Down with 
Metternich," was the cry from the roaring streets, and that 
famous dignitary was obliged to bow to the storm. He escaped 
from the city disguised, in a laundry cart, and fled to England. 
The emperor was thoroughly frightened. He changed his ministry 
and promised the people a constitution. 

In Bohemia and Hungary, in the same month, there were 
uprisings in which the people demanded not only a more liberal 
government, but a recognition of their respective nations and 
languages as distinct from the Germans of Austria. The emperor 
granted Bohemia a constitution, but soon there was quarreling 
in that land. A large majority of the people in Bohemia were 
Bohemians or Czechs, but a strong minority were Germans, and 
the two races could not agree. The Austrian emperor, who at 
heart was a despot and hated liberalism, had only been playing 
for time. He now made the domestic quarrel in Bohemia an 
excuse to send an army into that country. This army soon 
crushed out every vestige of Bohemian liberty, then marched 
upon Vienna, in which another riot had occurred, and, after a 
fearful bombardment, reduced the city to submission. 

481. Francis Joseph ; Revolt of Hungary. — Emperor Ferdi- 
nand now abdicated his throne in favor of his nephew, Francis 
Joseph, a youth of eighteen years. The new emperor was not 
embarrassed, like his uncle, with promises to the liberals, and he 
determined to restore the old despotic conditions. 

In Austria and Bohemia the liberals had been put down with a 



542 The Progress of Democracy 

ruthless hand ; also in Italy, as we shall see later. Hungary was 
yet to be dealt with. The Hungarians refused to acknowledge 
Francis Joseph as their ruler. They set up a republic and chose 
Louis Kossuth (kosh'oot), an eloquent and patriotic leader, presi- 
dent. As they had been granted a separate army as well as a 
constitution, they were not easy to subdue. Not until a large 
Russian army came to the aid of Austria were the Hungarians 
crushed. Kossuth fled to Turkey and later to the United States, 
and the dream of Hungarian independence passed into the shadows. 

482. Attempted Revolution in Italy. — The one man who above 
all others prepared the Italian mind for revolt against Austrian 
oppression was Mazzini (mat-se'ne, 1 805-1 872), a lawyer and 
journalist of Genoa, a patriot of lofty ideas. Many years he 
spent in exile and in prison for his love of freedom and his service 
to his native land. He organized " Young Italy," a revolutionary 
society, and worked for many years to mold public opinion to 
his ideals. He lived to see his efforts crowned with success, as 
will appear in a later chapter ; but the revolt in 1848 did not end 
as he had hoped. 

The Italian rebellion against tyranny began in Sicily and 
Naples in January, 1848, even before the revolution in France. 
The imbecile tyrant on the throne was quickly frightened into 
granting a constitution. Then came the news of the revolt in 
France and the flight of the hated Metternich from Vienna. 
Instantly the whole Italian peninsula was aflame with revolution. 
Venice and Lombardy expelled the Austrian garrisons and de- 
clared for independence. Their oppression had been galling. 
Austrian spies and secret police were everywhere. Political dis- 
cussion was forbidden. There was a tax on every bakery and 
every market. Venice and Lombardy constituted but one eighth 
of the population of the Austrian Empire, but paid one fourth of 
the taxes. Calling on the rest of Italy for help, they were joined 
by Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, who gave his people a free 
constitution and declared for free Italy, also by Pope Pius IX 
and other local rulers. 



Revolution of 1848 in Italy and Germany 543 

It was a great national uprising for liberty. Everything seemed 
to promise a speedy release from Austrian tyranny. But the 
Italians were badly organized. Their armies, except that of 
Sardinia- Piedmont, were weak and ineffective. A huge Austrian 
army under a veteran commander came upon the scene and in 
two battles broke the power of the rebellion and restored the 
authority of the emperor. 

Later when the pope withdrew his sympathy from the liberals 
the people of the Papal States rose against him, drove him out of 
Rome, and, under the guidance of Mazzini, set up a Roman 
Republic. The new republic had no chance to survive, and its 
life was less than a year. Louis Napoleon, the new president of 
France, saw his opportunit)' to curry favor with his Catholic 
subjects. He sent an army to Rome which soon put down the 
revolt and restored the pope to his former position. The Italian 
revolt, like that in Austria, ended in failure ; but the seeds of 
liberty were sown and in another decade were to bring a different 
harvest. 

483. In Germany. — The report that Metternich had fallen 
caused a wave of rejoicing over German}^, for the Germans alzo 
were the victims of his heavy hand. In Berlin the people gathered 
in great numbers in the streets demanding a share in the govern- 
ment. The troops were ordered to fire on the people, and many 
were slain. But the king of Prussia, Frederick William IV, did 
not follow up his victory. He sent the troops from the city and 
ordered the calling of an assembly to draw up a constitution 
for Prussia, which was afterward modified by the king. The 
constitution as put into force was a sham, because the people 
were given no real control and the king retained most of his abso- 
lute power. 

Meantime a far wider movement, affecting not Prussia alone 
but all Germany, was taking place. A call was issued for the 
electing of a German Parliament by manhood suffrage. The 
Parliament met in Frankfort in May, 1848, and after long de- 
bates it offered a constitution uniting all the German states. 



544 The Progress of Democracy 

including the German part of Austria, into a German Empire, 
and offered the crown to the king of Prussia (1849). Frederick 
William refused it because, first, he was at heart a divine-right 
absolutist and did not wish to accept power from the people, 
and second, because he was afraid of Austria. The Austrian 
emperor, having crushed out rebellion in his own dominions, 
declared in no uncertain terms that there should be no German 
Empire with a Hohenzollern as its chief, or with any part (that 
is, the non-German parts) of the Austrian dominions excluded. 
The king of Prussia, a timid man, bowed to the will of Austria. 
A reaction set in, and the revolutionary leaders were hunted down 
by the German princes. Some of them escaped to America. 
Among them was Carl Schurz (shobrts), who became a prominent 
figure in American public life. 

The Revolution of 1848 brought meager immediate results to 
Central Europe. It is true that the last vestiges of feudalism were 
destroyed, and that Prussia gained a constitution which appeared 
to limit the royal power ; but the great prize which the people 
had hoped to win — ^ liberty and self-government — was denied 
them. Nevertheless, forces had been set in motion, which within 
the next twenty-five years were to achieve tremendous results. 

Side Talk 

Travels of Louis Philippe in America. — Among the many exiles 
who fled from the terrors of the French Revolution in 1789, was the 
Duke of Orleans, later King Louis Philippe, whose father had suffered 
death at the guillotine. After wandering in various European coun- 
tries, the duke, then a youth of twenty-three, embarked for America, 
and reached Philadelphia in October, 1796. A few months later he 
was joined by his two younger brothers. 

The three brothers visited President Washington at Mount Vernon, 
and then started on an extensive tour of the West and South. They 
traveled on horseback and carried their belongings in saddlebags. Much 
of the country was wild and uninhabited, and often through the wilder- 
ness they picked their way with difficulty. These royal brothers, born 
amid all the luxury that Europe could offer, endured the hardships of 
the frontier life and adapted themselves to the rough society of the 



The Revolution of 1848 545 

wilderness. They slept in village taverns, in the crude huts that dotted 
the wilderness here and there, or wrapped in their blankets under the 
open sky. 

They went by way of Winchester, Virginia, to Knoxville and Nash- 
ville in Tennessee, and thence northward to Louisville and Lexington 
in Kentucky. Crossing the Ohio River, they visited Chillicothe, 
Lancaster, and Zanesville in Ohio. Next they went to Wheeling, 
Pittsburgh, and Niagara Falls. After returning to Philadelphia they 
went again to Pittsburgh and floated in a small boat down the Ohio 
and Mississippi rivers to New Orleans, whence they sailed to Havana 
and London. 

In a letter written by one of the brothers to their sister in Europe, 
he says, " We passed fourteen nights in the woods, devoured by all 
kinds of insects, often wet to the bone, and our only food being pork, 
a little salt beef, and maize bread. We were forty or fifty nights in 
miserable huts, where we were obliged to lie upon the floor made of 
rough timbers. . . . We have seen many Indians. . . . They are 
in general the best people in the world, except when they are intoxicated 
or inflamed by passion. They received us with great kindness, and 
our being Frenchmen contributed not a little to our reception, for they 
are very fond of our nation." 

Questions and Topics. — I. What forced Charles X from the French 
throne? How did Louis Philippe secure it? What important change 
in the theory of government had taken place since the accession of 
Louis XVIII? What can you tell of the Revolution of 1830 in Belgium? 
What movement took place in Switzerland? in Italy? in Poland? 

II. Name the three political parties in France in 1830. What can 
you tell of Thiers and Guizot? Describe the third French Revolution. 
Why was the republic now set up called the Second French Republic? 
Who was Louis Blanc? Who was Louis Napoleon? How did he 
come to be president? emperor? 

III. What was the status of Austria in 1848? of Italy? of Germany? 
Describe the uprising in each. Why did the people fail in Germany to 
secure any good results? 

Events and Dates. — Second French Revolution, 1830 ; Third, 1848. 
Establishing of the Second French Republic, 1848; the Second French 
Empire, 1852. 

For Further Reading. — Seignobos, Political History of Europe, since 
1814. FySe, History of Modern Europe. JiassaW, The French People. Lebon, 
Modern France. 



CHAPTER XXXIX 
UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY 

I. The Making of Modern Italy 

484. The House of Savoy, the Hope of Italy. — The great 
uprising in Italy in 1 848-1 849 and its dismal failure proved two 
things to the Italian people — that the pope, with his interna- 
tional interests, could not be a successful secular ruler according 
to modern ideals ; and that the hope of Italy was in the House of 
Savoy, as the royal family of Sardinia-Piedmont was called. 

King Charles Albert had resigned the crown to his son, Victor 
Emman'uel II, and the latter had proved himself true to the cause 
of liberty. He refused threats and proffered bribes from Austria 
to betray his people and rob them of the constitution his father 
had granted them. He had a vision of united Italy, under the 
crown of his own little kingdom and free from the galling bondage 
of Austria. The great majority of the Italian people were longing 
for political freedom from Austria, or from their own tyrannical 
rulers, and their eyes turned to Victor Emmanuel. The king, 
a man of moderate ability, was exceedingly fortunate in having as 
prime minister a man of great capacity who was supremely de- 
voted to the liberation of Italy. 

485. Count Cavour, the Liberator of Italy. — ■ A younger son of 
a noble family, Cavour (ka-voor' ; 1 8 10- 1 861) entered the army 
and received no early training in statesmanship. At the time 
of the Revolution of 1830, though a youth of twenty, his sym- 
pathies with liberty were so pronounced that he was considered 
" dangerous " by his superiors and was transferred to a lonely 
fortress in the Alps. Disliking so inactive a life, he resigned, re- 
turned to his home, and became the manager of his family's an- 
cestral estate. Here we find him at the outbreak of the revolt 

546 



The Making of Modern Italy 547 

in 1848. He was sent to the legislative chamber of Sardinia- 
Piedmont, where he began to display his remarkable powers. He 
attracted the attention of Victor Emmanuel, who saw in him a 
man of unusual promise and invited him to a seat in the Cabinet. 
" You will see him turn you all out of your places," said the king 
to his ministers. 

Cavour was not a republican. He desired to see all Itah^ united, 
a limited monarchy, under the crown of Savo)^ with a liberal 
constitution. To bring about this end he devoted all his energy, 
he literally worked himself to death. But he lived to see almost 
the attainment of the goal of his life-work, the realization of his 
dream. 

Mazzini (sec. 482) was the philosopher and the idealist, Cavour 
was the statesman and one of the greatest of modern times. In 
1852 Cavour became prime minister of Sardinia- Piedmont, and 
thenceforth he was the soul of the movement for united Ital}^ 
The forming of patriotic societies did not appeal to him. He 
believed that Italy could become great only by establishing in- 
dustries, building railroads, and improving agriculture, and he 
did all in his power to foster these things. He believed that his 
land could be freed only through an established government with 
a strong army. 

Many acts of Cavour reveal the farsighted statesman. One 
of these was his sending an army to join those of France and Great 
Britain in the Crime'an War (i 854-1 856). He had Httle interest 
in the issues of that war against Russia, the chief result of which 
was to protect Turkey from Russian aggression. Cavour 's object 
was to gain a place for his country in the councils of the powers. 
This they could not refuse after accepting his help on the battle- 
field. The next year, when the treaty settling the questions of 
the war was made at Paris, Cavour was one of the diplomats 
present, and he was the ablest of them all. The regular work fin- 
ished, Cavour set forth a powerful and vivid picture of the deplor- 
able conditions in Italy and laid the matter upon the conscience 
of the great powers. 



548 



The Progress of Democracy 



'^he Austrian ambassador heard it all. Austria took alarm, 
and before the end of the year she began great reforms in her 
vicious and tyrannous government of Lombardy and Venice. 
But it was too late. The great Italian statesman had determined 

that Italy should be 
free. 

486. Garibaldi and 
the "War for Italian 
Liberty. — It has been 
said that Mazzini was 
the philosopher of 
ItaUan liberty, Cavour 
was the statesman, 
and Garibaldi (ga-re- 
bai'de) was the soldier. 
In the revolt of 1848 
Garibaldi was one of 
the leading figures. As 
a commander he was 
inspiring and brave, 
but he was rash and 
reckless, and a steadier 
hand was needed to 
restrain him. 

Cavour fully realized 
that the only hope of 
Italian success against 
Austria lay in the aid 
of one of the great 
powers, and with unwearied effort he won over Louis Napoleon, 
the late president, now emperor of France. 

A casus belli was soon found. Victor Emmanuel marshaled 
his troops, Garibaldi was ready with an intrepid band, and a 
French army poured across the mountains. At Magenta (ma- 
jen'ta ; map, p. 551) came the first clash. The Austrians were de- 




Garibaldi, in i860 

From a contemporary drawing. Between 1849 and 

1859 he spent several years in New York, engaged 

in commerce. 



The Making of Modern Italy 549 

feated. Three weeks later at Solferino (s61-fe-re'n6) the decisive 
battle was fought (June 24, 1859). Three hundred thousand 
men were engaged. The French-Italian allies won a brilliant 
victory, and Lombardy was theirs. 

All Italy was now afire with enthusiasm. But to the astonish- 
ment of all, the French and Austrian emperors met at Villafranca 
(vel-la-frang'ka) and agreed to terms of peace. Lombardy was 
to be given up, but Venice was to be retained by Austria. The 
supposed cause of Napoleon Ill's action in thus leaving his allies 
in the lurch was that he feared an attack by Prussia from the north. 
Cavour, Victor Emmanuel, and the Italian people were deeply 
chagrined, but they could do nothing but accept the inevitable. 
They could not continue the war without France. 

487. Acquisition of Central and Southern Italy. — In the war 
with Austria, the Italians had won a great prize — Lombardy. 
A notable step had been taken toward the liberating and uniting 
of Italy. Then came another surprise of a different sort. The 
people of Tuscany and other central states of Italy drove out their 
tyrant rulers and declared for union with Sardinia-Piedmont. 
Cavour made terms with France, ceded to that country two 
little provinces, Nice and Savoy, and accepted the great accession 
to his country (March, i860). Nearly all central and northern 
Italy, except Venice, was now united under Victor Emmanuel. 

The next great step in the unifying of Italy was taken by Gari- 
baldi. With a force of a thousand red-shirted men he sailed for 
Sicily. The people of the island, weary of their contemptible 
government, received him with open arms. Next he crossed to 
the mainland and proceeded to Naples. The king, deserted by 
his own people, fled from the city, and Garibaldi was master of all 
southern Italy. Meantime Cavour sent an army to occupy the 
Papal States, — excepting Rome and the surrounding district, — 
and these, together with Naples and Sicily, in the autumn of i860, 
were joined to the dominions of the House of Savoy. 

The great work of Cavour was finished. He lived to see the 
heavy hand of the oppressor removed from nearly all of his native 



550 The Progress of Democracy 

land. He had worn out his Ufe in the cause, and in the spring of 
1 86 1 the world was called to mourn the untimely death of the 
Liberator of Italy. 

488. Acquisition of Venice and Rome. — By anticipating a 
little we may here note the later fortunes of Italy, down to the out- 
break of the World War in 19 14. 

The great work of Cavour finished, nearly the whole country 
was united under one flag, except Venice, still under the control 
of Austria, and Rome, still held for the pope by the French army 
that had been stationed there in 1849. 

Then came the Seven Weeks' War in 1866, between Austria 
and Prussia. Italy joined with Prussia, against Austria, her 
sole object being to secure Venice. The Italians engaged the 
attention of one Austrian army, and the speedy defeat of another 
by the Prussians at Sadowa (sa'do-va) brought the desired result. 
Austria handed Venice over to Napoleon, who had been made 
arbiter, and Napoleon in turn offered to pass it over to Italy in 
case the Venetians expressed a desire to join Italy. They did so 
in an election by an almost unanimous vote.^ 

A few years later the City of the Seven Hills fell like ripe 
fruit into the lap of the kingdom of Italy. During a hard-fought 
war between France and Prussia (1870) the emperor of France 
withdrew his army from Rome. This left Pope Pius IX almost 
helpless. The Italian army occupied the city without a battle. 
The question of annexation was then left to a vote of the people, 
and they voted a hundred to one in favor of joining United Italy. 
Rome was made the capital of the young nation, and the banners 
of the House of Savoy waved over the entire peninsula. 

The pope retained only the Vatican palace and grounds, where 
he and his successors have enjoyed the dignity of a sovereign, and 
have not been subjects of the Italian king. The popes have re- 
mained unreconciled to the loss of the Papal States, claiming that 

1 On the frontiers of Venice, however, Austria still held two districts peopled 
mainly by Italians ; namely, the regions including Trent and Trieste (tre-esf), which 
were not acquired by Italy until 1918. 



The Making of Modern Italy 



551 




ra^SrfSWITZERLAN D 1 1 , ^-~, -- 

O '•l-v.-.-:-':.-.:.-/.-.-.'-:-:--;:/.-:, f 



Unification of Italy 



the position of an independent ruler is essential to the head of the 
Catholic Church. They have therefore refused to leave the Vati- 
can grounds or to accept the annual income proffered by the 
Italian government. 

489. Italy after 1870. — Italy is a limited monarchy with a 
liberal constitution. The king appoints his ministers, but they 
are responsible to Parliament, the lower house of which is elected 
by the people. 




552 



The Making of Modern Italy 553 

The great burden of ItaUans for more than hah a century has 
been a crushing debt. Little coal or iron is found in Italy, and 
few other minerals. Agriculture, the chief industry, is in a back- 
ward condition, especially in the southern part. In spite of the 
poverty of the people they were, until the World War of 1914, 
taxed more heavily than any other people in Europe. One fourth 
of the national income was required to pay the interest on the pub- 
lic debt, and a large portion of the remainder to support the army 
and navy. Italy maintained an army and a navy out of propor- 
tion to her wealth. But with all these handicaps much progress 
was made. State railroads were built, marshes drained, and a 
public school system was established.^ In i860 three fourths of 
the people were illiterate ; fifty years later, only about half. 

Great numbers of Italians left their country, owing to the exces- 
sive taxation, and migrated to the United States or to South 
America. In the hope of keeping such emigrants nearer home the 
government deemed it important to acquire dependencies in North 
Africa. With her eye on Tunis Italy was displeased by the ex- 
tension of French control over that country in 1881, and was there- 
fore led to join the Triple Alliance (sec. 506). 

In 191 1 Italy determined to occupy Tripoli (trip'o-li), a posses- 
sion of Turkey, on the pretext of misgovemment of that country. 
Though weakened at that moment by recent internal troubles, 
Turkey refused her consent and war followed. Prevented by the 
Italian fleet, Turkey was unable to send large forces to Tripoli. 
After a desultory struggle for a year, Turkey, about to engage 
in the Balkan War (sec. 546) gave up and ceded Tripoli to Italy. 
Italy thereupon restored the ancient name of Lib'ia (or Libya) to 
the conquered province. The question whether Italian emigrants 
would continue to go to other lands as before or would instead 
settle in Libia in large numbers, was not yet settled when the 
World War put a stop to nearly all emigration. 

^ A great memorial was erected to the king under whom the unification of Italy 
was brought about (see opposite page) . It stands at the head of the Corso, Rome's 
principal street. It was twenty-five years in building and cost twelve million dollars. 
EL. M. T. - — 36 



554 The Progress of Democracy 

II. Unifying of Germany; War with France 

490. Germany after the Rising in 1848. — The wave of liberal 
agitation that swept over Europe in 1848 left Germany divided 
into many states in spite of the faithful efforts of the Frankfort 
Parliament (sec. 483). For hundreds of years Austria had been 
the dominating state of Germany, and Austria determined to 
continue its leadership and to prevent a unifying of the states. 
The eyes of the rest of Germany thereupon turned hopefully to- 
ward Prussia. If there was to be German unity Prussia would 
have to take the lead in bringing it about, and the first thing to 
be done was to cast out Austria and her polyglot possessions from 
the German family. 

King Frederick William IV died in 186 1, and his brother William, 
a man of sixty-three, succeeded to the Prussian throne. A year 
later he called Otto von Bismarck to be his chief minister. Bis- 
marck was a masterful man, a born aristocrat, without a drop of 
democratic blood in his veins. He resembled Metternich in his 
belief in the divine right of kings, but in the aim and achievement 
of his career he must be compared with Cavour. 

The great goal of Bismarck's life was to exclude Austria from 
Germany and to unite the other states under the leadership of 
Prussia. He believed the only possible means to accomplish this 
was by war, and for years he wrestled with a reluctant Diet to 
bring Prussia to a military footing. In a speech to the Diet he 
declared that the unity of Germany could be achieved " not by 
speeches, nor by votes of majorities, but by blood and iron." 

491. Bismarck and the Seven Weeks' War. — How to get a 
quarrel with Austria was a puzzle for Bismarck to solve. The 
solution came soon after a short conflict with Denmark, in which 
Austria and Prussia seized some territory ; for they quarreled over 
the spoils. Bismarck had deftly made an alliance with Italy by 
which that country was to attack Austria on the south and to 
receive Venice as a reward (sec. 488). When Austria discovered 
that war was inevitable she offered Venice to Italy free if the 



Unifying of Germany 555 

latter would stay out of the war. The temptation was great, but 
as a matter of honor Italy could not violate her pledged word. 

The war lasted seven weeks in the summer of 1866. Prussia 
had the great advantage of a thoroughly trained army, an able 
war minister, a great strategist in von Moltke (fon molt'ke), 
and a Bismarck towering above all. There was but one great 
battle - — Sadowa, in Bohemia. It was fought on July 3. The 
Austrian army of 200,000 men, overwhelmed and thrown into dis- 
order, left 18,000 men dead and wounded on the field. 

From this blow Austria could not recover. She agreed to terms 
of peace dictated by Bismarck. Besides giving up Venice to Italy, 
she consented to keep her hands off German aifairs in future and 
to raise no objection to the reorganization of Germany. Austria 
was not required to cede any territory to Prussia, but her ally 
Hanover in Northern Germany was, with other German lands, 
annexed outright to Prussia. 

The North German Confederation was then formed under the 
leadership of Prussia. It did not include the southern states, 
Bavaria, Wiirttemberg, Baden, and Hesse (hes), which had fought 
on the side of Austria in the war ; but Bismarck made with them 
secret treaties of alliance, looking to the next war. 

In 1867 the Austrian emperor was crowned king of Hungary, 
and his empire was reorganized as a dual monarchy — the empire 
of Austria and kingdom of Hungary, each of these states being 
nearly independent, except in war and foreign affairs. 

492. Louis Napoleon and his Tottering Throne. — The em- 
peror Napoleon III was very popular for some years after the 
establishing of the Second Empire. Though a man of moderate 
ability, he was not wholly selfish, he was devoted to the country's 
welfare, and he did everything in his power to enhance its pros- 
perity. In this period many schools and churches were built, 
roads, canals, and docks were constructed, commerce was multi- 
plied, and cities were improved and beautified as never before. 

But public opinion in Europe at this time demanded military 
glory in a ruler as well as prosperity at home. Napoleon was 



556 



The Progress of Democracy 



keenly conscious of this, and he well knew that, having usurped 
and not having inherited his exalted position, he must on occasion 
do some brilliant thing in order to retain the allegiance of his 
people. It was on this account in part that he had engaged in the 
Crimean War in 1854, and in the War of Italian Liberation a few 
years later. It was almost wholly on this account that he em- 
barked in an ill-starred expedition to set up an empire in Mexico. 























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Entry of the French Army into Mexico in 1863 



The Mexican venture proved a dismal failure and greatly impaired 
the prestige of Napoleon in Europe. The unhappy Mexican 
emperor, a brother of the emperor of Austria, was overthrown and 
shot by the Mexican republicans, and the misfortune was laid at 
the door of Napoleon. 

Then came the crushing victory of Prussia over Austria at 
Sadowa. This was looked upon as a blow to France, because, 
according to the theory of the balance of power, no great nation 
should be greatly strengthened without a corresponding strength- 
ening of its rivals. By this war Prussia had suddenly leaped into 
first place as the strongest power in Central Europe. It had an- 



The Franco-Prussian War 557 

nexed much territory, had disabled its great rival on the south, 
and had formed a strong confederation. 

France had won nothing. Napoleon could make no demands. 
His best troops were in Mexico. His people were chagrined at 
the situation and ready to hold him responsible. He knew that 
the glory of his name was fading, and he felt the tottering of his 
throne. In this dilemma he looked about to see how he might do 
something or get something in order to compensate France for the 
great gains Prussia had made. He sought to secure some terri- 
tory on the left bank of the Rhine, or to conquer and annex Bel- 
gium, but in each instance he was thwarted by Bismarck. Why? 
Because the Prussian minister wanted a war with France. 

493. Cause of the Franco -Prussian War (1870). — Bismarck 
made the unifying of Germany the goal of his life. A great step 
had been taken in the defeat of Austria. But he saw that France, 
offended at what had already been done, would not sit quietly by 
while a strong and aggressive empire was molded into being on 
her eastern frontier. Therefore he considered it necessary to 
strike France down and render her unable to interfere. The oc- 
casion came from an unexpected quarter. 

The Spanish throne was vacant, the unpopular queen, Isa- 
bella II, having been driven out in 1868. The Spaniards were 
looking for a sovereign and they offered the crown to Leopold, a 
German prince distantly related to the HohenzoUern House of 
Prussia. He could not accept without the consent of the head 
of the house, the king of Prussia, and had he accepted, Prussia 
and Spain would have been ruled by the same family. France 
could endure no such union of two rival powers, and she made it 
known that an acceptance by Prince Leopold would mean imme- 
diate war. King William of Prussia, approached on the subject 
by the French minister, disclaimed all responsibility. Meantime 
Leopold declined the proffered crown of Spain. 

The French ambassador then asked King William to promise 
that he would not permit his relative ever to become again a candi- 
date for the Spanish throne. The king politely refused (July 13, 



55^ The Progress of Democracy 

1870) ; but the account of this interview, as given to the press b}^ 
Bismarck, was garbled to make it appear more serious than it 
was, so that it would inflame the people in both countries. In 
Berlin and in Paris the people flared up for war. Before the end 
of July both countries had great armies in the field ready to leap 
at each other's throats. 

494. Preparedness. — The contrast between the belligerents 
of this war in the matter of preparedness was most striking. 
Prussia was prepared to the last degree. Von Moltke had studied 
the ground over which the armies were to travel until he knew it 
almost foot by foot. The news of the French declaration of war 
(July 19, 1870) reached Berlin late at night. Von Moltke had 
retired and when an officer came into his room asking for direc- 
tions it is said he merely pointed to his desk, saying, " You will 
find all instructions there in a drawer." The German war ma- 
chine was the most nearly perfect and the most formidable ever 
known in history. The armies were mobilized with marvelous 
rapidity and with the regularity of clockwork, and within a few 
days they were pouring like a torrent into the valley of the Rhine. 

On the other hand, the unreadiness of France was equally as- 
tonishing. A lamentable lack of discipline was soon apparent. 
The army was disorganized and was wanting in munitions and 
supplies. It fell far below the Prussian army in numbers and 
equaled it only in valor. 

Moreover, Napoleon had expected the aid qf the South German 
states, which had fought against Prussia only four years ago, but 
Bismarck had secretly secured their alliance. France was over- 
confident. For three hundred years she had been the dominant 
nation on the Continent and had not in that time been defeated by 
any single nation. Recklessly and blindly she plunged into this war 
that was to dethrone her emperor and revolutionize her government. 

495. Sedan and the Siege of Paris. — " On to Berlin " was the 
cry of the French armies as they marched to the frontier. A few 
weeks later they were struggling for existence in the grasp of 
their powerful antagonists. 



The Franco-Prussian War 



559 



In several bloody frontier engagements ending in the battle of 
Gravelotte (grav-lot', August i8) the Germans were victorious. 
A large French army then took refuge in the great fortress of Metz, 
which was soon surrounded by the German legions. Another 
French army, under Marshal MacMahon (mak-ma-oN'), was 
engaged by the Germans at Sedan', and there on September i one 
of the " decisive battles of the world " was fought. The French 
were utterly overthrown, and next day the entire French army of 
100,000 men, including the Emperor Napoleon III, was surren- 
dered to the enemy. 

The only French army remaining was now shut up in Metz. 
The Germans, leaving a strong force to guard it, marched upon 
Paris 200,000 strong. The 




10 21) 30 40 50 



French metropolis stood a 
siege of a little more than 
four months, communication 
with the outside world being 
kept up by means of bal- 
loons and carrier pigeons. 
The fortress of Metz with its 
170,000 men was surrendered 
to the Germans on October 
27 by its weak and disloyal 
commander. Meantime 
Gambet'ta, one of the ablest 
leaders in Paris, escaped from 
the city in a balloon and with 
incredible energy organized 
new armies in the hope of raising the siege 
match for the veteran armies of the enemy. 

Nothing could save the proud city from starvation or surrender. 
Like the coils of an anaconda the bands of the besieging armies 
were tightening around the doomed capital. The Parisians were 
almost starving when, on the 28th of January, 1871, the city 
capitulated. The war was over. 



Franco-Prussian War 

Territory lost to France at the close of the 
war is shaded. 



But they proved no 



560 The Progress of Democracy 

By the terms of peace the French were required (i) to cede to 
Prussia, Alsace and part of Lorraine, including the city of Stras- 
bourg (straz-boor') and the great fortress of Metz ; (2) to pay a 
war indemnity of one billion dollars, a German army to remain 
on French soil until payment should be made. A German army 
marched into Paris and camped there two days until France had 
ratified the treaty. 

496. Birth of a Nation. — The German Empire of 1871-1918 
was bom on French soil. It was at the time of the siege of Paris 
by the German armies, in a moment of glowing patriotic enthu.- 
siasm, that the German monarchs decided to join their fortunes 
and form a strong central government. For many centuries the 
German states had been apart. Every effort at union had failed 
or had been only partly successful. But now, at the psychological 
moment, when the German states were rejoicing in their com- 
mon victory over France, they felt their kinship as never before, 
and they did what the ancient Greeks could never do. They 
formed an empire with a solid central government, thus realizing 
the dream of patriotic Germans for generations. 

It was the masterful diplomacy of Bismarck that induced the 
reluctant states to surrender their independence. On January 
18, 1 87 1, in the French palace at Versailles, the empire was 
proclaimed, with the king of Prussia as hereditary emperor. 

Side Talk 

The Altered Telegram. — The telegram from Ems, describing the 
interview of the French ambassador (Benedetti) with the Prussian 
king, reached Bismarck when he was at dinner with Moltke and Roon. 
" As I read it to them," said Bismarck later, " they were both actually 
terrified, and Moltke's whole being suddenly changed. He seemed 
to be quite old and infirm. It looked as if our most gracious majesty 
might knuckle under after all. . . . Seating myself at a small table, 
I boiled down those two hundred words to about twenty, but without 
otherwise altering or adding anything. It was the same telegram, yet 
something different — shorter, more determined, less dubious. I then 
handed it over to them, and asked, ' Well, how does that do now?' 
' Yes,' they said, ' it will do in that form.' And Moltke immediately 



The Unifying of Germany 561 

became quite young and fresh again. He had got his war, his trade." 
— Busch, Bismarck. 

The Dispatch Received by Bismarck. — "Ems, July 13, 1870. His Majesty the King 
writes me : ' Count Benedetti intercepted me upon the promenade, in order finally to demand 
of me in a very pressing manner, that I should authorize him to telegraph immediately that I 
pledged myself for all the future never again to give my consent, if the HohenzoUerns should 
renew their candidacy. I refused, at length somewhat decidedly, since one neither can nor 
should take such an engagement a tout jamais [absolutely never]. I of course told him I had 
not yet received any word," and, since he was earlier informed about Paris and Madrid than 
I, he could easily see that my government was again out of the game.' 

"His Majesty has since received a message from the prince. As His Majesty said to Count 
Benedetti that he was expecting news from the prince. His Highness, with reference to the 
above-mentioned demand, upon the suggestion of Count Eulenberg, and myself, has de- 
termined not to receive Count Benedetti again, but only to have him told through an adjutant : 
That His Majesty has now received from the Prince confirmation of the news which Benedetti 
already had from Paris and has nothing further to say to the ambassador. 

"His Majesty leaves with your excellency whether the new demand of Benedetti and its 
immediate rejection should not be communicated to our ministers and to the press. — 
[signed] Abeken." 

The Dispatch as Published. — "Ems, July 13, 1870. After the news of the renunciation of 
the Hereditary Prince of Hohenzollern had been officially communicated to the French im- 
perial government by the royal Spanish [government], the French ambassador again presented 
a demand to His Majesty at Ems that he should be authorized to telegraph to Paris that His 
Majesty the King pledges himself for all the future never again to give his consent if the Hohen- 
zoUerns should resume their candidacy. His Majesty the King thereupon refused to receive 
the French minister and had him told through the service-adjutant that His Majesty has 
nothing further to communicate to the French minister." 

Questions and Topics. — I. Give an account of the House of Savoy. 
Tell about the early life of Cavour. Why did Cavour send an army to 
the Crimean War? Who was Mazzini? Garibaldi? Give the story of 
the war with Austria. Why did France make peace with Austria with- 
out the consent of Cavour? How did Italy acquire Venice from 
Austria? How did she acquire Rome? What sort of government has 
Italy? How does Italy get her supply of coal and iron? Is a limited 
monarchy better in any respect than a republic ? Why? What special 
reason had Italy for acquiring Tripoli ? 

II. What was the great aim of Bismarck ? Why did he wish to cast 
Austria out of Germany? What was the cause of the growing unpopu- 
larity of Napoleon III ? What occasioned the Franco-Prussian quarrel 
in 1870? Which of the two nations was the better prepared? Should 
a nation at all times be prepared for war ? Why ? Give an account of 
the forming of the German Empire. 

Events and Dates. — Under Cavour's leadership, nearly all Italy 
except Venice and Rome became united in i860. Venice was acquired 
in 1866 and Rome in 1870. Franco-Prussian War, 1870-1871. Under 
the leadership of Bismarck the German Empire was formed in 1871. 

For Further Reading. — Phillips, Modem Europe. Andrews, Historical 
Development of Modern Europe. Monroe Smith, Bismarck and German Unity. 



CHAPTER XL 

FRANCE AFTER 1870 

I. The Third French Republic 

497. Fall of the Second Empire ; Civil War. — Nothing but 
success in the war with Prussia could have saved the tottering 
throne of Louis Napoleon. This he could not win. He lost 
not only the battles but also his liberty and his empire. Two 
days after the taking of the emperor at Sedan the people of Paris 
in wild disorder proclaimed an end of the empire and the estabhsh- 
ing of a republic. 

On the coming of peace with Germany, France passed through 
one of the most terrible crises in her eventful history, equaling if 
not surpassing the Reign of Terror in 1794 (sec. 406). A radical 
party in Paris set up a government called the Commune, which 
opposed the regular Assembly, recently elected by the people 
of France. The Commune gained control of Paris. It waved 
the red flag and preached wild notions of abolishing religion and 
marriage. Its war against the regular troops began on March 18, 
1 87 1, and for two months the streets of the city were drenched 
in blood. No fiercer civil war is recorded in history. At length 
the government troops gained the mastery. The insurgents, who 
had wantonly burned several public buildings, including the 
Palace of the Tuileries, and had murdered their captives, were 
hunted down with a relentless hand. At least ten thousand of 
them had been killed in the streets and now other thousands, 
when captured, were shot down or sent into life-long exile. 

A new dawn was about to break on this unhappy land. Though 
doubly wounded by the German war and by this frightful civil 
strife, France quickly began to recover and to look forward to a 

new life. 

562 



The Third French RepubHc 563 

498. The New Republic and the Contending Parties. — The 

first president chosen for the new repubhc was Thiers, the vener- 
able statesman-historian who had been in the midst of pohtical 
strife back in the days of Louis Phihppe (sec. 473). He was 
probably the best choice that could have been made ; but he 
was handicapped from the beginning by the fierce contention of 
political parties. 

■ The contending parties numbered four. The Imperialists or 
Bonapartists would have restored Louis Napoleon to his throne.^ 
The Orleanists wished the Count of Paris, grandson of Louis 
Philippe (sec. 474) to receive the French throne. The Legitimists 
sought to restore the old Bourbon line, the " legitimate " heir to 
which was the Duke of Chambord (shaN-bor') — " Henry V," as he 
had been called in childhood ; he was the grandson of Charles X 
(sec. 470). The Republicans desired to abandon all thought of 
monarchy and to maintain the republic.^ 

The majority of the Assembly were monarchists, but they could 
not agree, and while they were wrangling over their candidates 
the Republicans were gaining. President Thiers proved a strong 
ruler.- Within a few years the country was again prosperous and 
the war indemnity was paid. But Thiers was obliged to resign 
(1873) because of his Republican leanings. The monarchists 
were still very active. They elected Marshal McMahon, one 
of their own number, president. He was expected to give way 
to a king. An arrangement was made according to which the 
Duke of Chambord was to become king and on his death the 
crown was to pass to the House of Orleans. But the duke frus- 
trated the whole plan by declaring that he would restore the white 
flag of the Bourbons, which meant, virtually, that if he could 
not be an absolute monarch he would refuse the crown. The 
French were not in the mood to accept him on such conditions. 
The plan fell through and the republic was saved. 

1 This party was small and without hope of success. Napoleon, after being held 
in Germany for a few months, went to England, where he died in 1873. 

2 Note that the parties were the same as in 1830, with the Bonapartists added 
(sec. 472). 



564 The Progress- of Democracy 

The Assembly then passed a series of laws which form the 
constitution of the Third French Republic. 



II. The French Government 

499. The President and the National Assembly. — In France 
there are no presidential elections by the people, preceded by 
noisy campaigns, as in this country. The president of France 
is elected by the two houses of the legislature in joint session, for 
a term of seven years. But since the establishing of the Third 
Republic the president has resigned his office on various occasions 
before serving out his full term. The president acts only through 
the ministers, whom he appoints, but they are responsible to the 
Chamber of Deputies. With the consent of the Senate he has 
power to dissolve the Chamber and call a new election ; but on 
the whole his power is not nearly so great as that of the president 
of the United States. The premier, or chief of the cabinet min- 
isters, has far greater power than the president of France, just 
as the British prime minister has more power than the king of 
Great Britain. Like the British prime minister, also, whenever 
he fails to command the support of the majority in the Chamber, 
he either resigns or brings about the election of a new Chamber. 

The two houses of the legislature are the Senate and the Cham- 
ber of Deputies. The Senate is composed of 300 men elected 
for nine years by electoral colleges. The Deputies are elected for 
four years by universal manhood suffrage. When the two houses 
meet in joint session, as they do to elect a president or to amend 
the constitution, they take the name of the National Assembly. 

The present constitution of France was made in 1875, but it 
has been changed somewhat by amendment. When the consti- 
tution was adopted the monarchists still hoped to gain control 
and to set up a king ; but in 1876 an election was held which gave 
the Republicans a two thirds majority in the Chamber. Three 
years later the Senate also became Republican, and the hopes 
of the monarchists fell to zero. From that time to the present 



The French Government 



565 




Chamber of Deputies, Paris 

The original building, begun in 1722, was a palace. It was enlarged at various times 

and declared national property during the French Revolution. The side facing the 

river, shown here, was built in 1804 to 1807, in the style of a Greek temple. 



the Repubhc has held a steady course and it promises to be the 
permanent government of France. For nearly a century the 
nation had been tossed about on the billows of revolution, but at 
last it seems to have a stable government. Even the World War 
that broke out in 19 14 (to be treated in later chapters) had no 
effect in unsettling the Third Republic. 

500. Local Government in France. — In one respect the French 
Republic is very different from our American republic. France 
is a unitary or consolidated government ; the United States 
is a federal government. In a consolidated government the 
national or central authority exercises control in the local affairs 
of all parts of the country. A federal government is composed 
of parts, each part having independent powers of self-government. 
In our country the parts are called states. 



566 The Progress of Democracy 

In France the central authorities control local government. 
In our country neither the President and his Cabinet nor Congress 
has anything to do with the government of the states, the coun- 
ties, or the townships. 

France is divided into about ninety departments and these 
are subdivided, the smallest division being called the commune, 
which corresponds in some respects to our township. 

The chief officer in a department is the prefect, who is ap- 
pointed by the minister of the interior at Paris. The prefect is 
aided in the management of local affairs by a general council 
elected by the people ; but all their acts are under the supervision 
of the minister of the interior. The mayor of a town or city, 
though elected by the people (since 1884), is responsible to the 
minister of the interior, who may revise his acts or remove him 
from office and call a new election. 



III. Progress at Home and Abroad 

501. Industry and Education. — Since the war with Germany 
in 1870 France has made remarkable progress. The increase in 
population has been very slow and France does not hold the 
commanding position among the powers she once held, but the 
peasantry are more thrifty and prosperous than those of any 
other country in Europe. France is preeminently a nation of 
small farmers and savers. Several million farmers in France 
own each twenty-five acres or less, but they farm intensively and 
sqientifically ; they live comfortably and have money to loan. 
What a contrast between the peasants of to-day and those of the 
time preceding the Revolution in 1789 ! 

With but a slight increase in population France more than 
trebled her output of coal and of the factories between 1870 and 
1 9 14. She has also maintained a commanding place in science 
and hterature. In the World War of 1914-1918 large areas in 
northern France were terribly devastated, and millions of French- 
men were killed or wounded ; but the country is rapidly recovering. 



Church and State in France 



567 



and is expected to increase greatly its output of coal and manu- 
factured goods. 

The present French sj^stem of education is one of the best in 
Europe, and it is a growth of the Third Republic. The efforts to 
introduce popular educa- 
tion before 1870 were not 
very successful. Since then 
schools have been estab- 
lished in everj^ commune ; 
the education of children is 
free and compulsory. 

502. The Chiurch and the 
State. — For manj^ years 
after the republic was 
founded the monarchists 
continued to hope for ulti- 
mate success. So trouble- 
some did they become that 
a law was passed in 1886 
expelling from the country 
all claimants to the throne. 
Among the stanch monarch- 
ists of the period were the 
Catholic clerg5^ This fact 
led to various repressive 
laws against the church. 
One of these forbade mem- 
bers of the religious orders 
to teach in the schools ; an- 
other provided for marriage by civil magistrates, and forbade 
priests to solemnize a marriage not previously contracted in the 
presence of a magistrate. 

The breach between church and state was growing wider when 
in 1892 Pope Leo XIII wisely recommended that the clergy cease 
their opposition to the republic and try to secure their needed 




The Eiffel Tower, Paris 

This tower was completed in 1889, to serve 
as a feature of the Paris Exposition of that 
year. The view from its summit extends for 
eighty-five miles. During the World War it 
was used as a mount for searchlights to pre- 
vent German air raids. 




568 



Colonial Expansion of France 569 

privileges by supporting it and influencing legislation. For a time 
conditions were better, but monarchic sympathies still lingered, 
and the blame was placed on the training of the French youth in 
the church schools. The government therefore determined on a 
drastic move. During the first three years of the twentieth 
century it closed thousands of church schools and ordered that 
the education of the young be conducted by the state. 

A still greater change came in 1905. The Concordat of Na- 
poleon I (sec. 420) after being in force for 104 years, was annulled 
and a complete separation of church and 'state was effected. 
By the terms of the Concordat the clergy were paid from the public 
treasury. The law of 1905 cut off this stipend with the death 
of those receiving it. The churches remained the property of 
the state, but by special arrangement they may still be used by 
Catholics, Protestants, and Jews. The Catholic party denounced 
all this as persecution and robbery; but the election of 1906 
sustained the anti-clerical party, and the new conditions seem 
to have been permanently established. 

503. Colonial Expansion of France. — In the eighteenth cen- 
tury, as noticed in a former chapter, France lost to Great Britain 
her great possessions in North America and India (sec. 369). Soon 
afterwards came the French Revolution and the Napoleonic 
wars, which left the coimtry in an exhausted condition. Not 
before 1830 did France begin to look about for colonial posses- 
sions, and North Africa then offered the most tempting prize. 
North Africa, as often stated, with its congenial climate and its 
fertile soil, is but an overseas extension of Europe, the true Africa 
beginning with the Sahara. 

In 1830 France began the conquest of the half-civilized peoples- 
in Algeria. After years of fierce fighting the country was con- 
quered and annexed to France. Since then it has advanced 
greatly in civilization, and it sends representatives to the legisla- 
tive bodies at Paris. 

In 1 88 1 France gained control of Tunis and made it a " pro- 
tectorate." 

EL. M. T. — -37 



570 The Progress of Democracy 

France continued to extend her power in Africa until she had 
gained control of Senegal, part of the valley of the Niger, part of 
the Kongo, most of the great Sahara region, most of Morocco, 
and the great island of Madagascar. In Asia the chief French 
possession is the eastern half of the great peninsula of Indo-China. 
In the Pacific Ocean the French own New Caledonia and a few 
smaller islands. In the Western Hemisphere the French possessions 
are meager, consisting of French Guiana and a few small islands. 

The French colonial possessions of the world comprise about 
four million square miles with about forty million population, 
the great majority of whom are uncivilized. The French colonial 
policy is wise and humane. The inhabitants enjoy self-govern- 
ment in so far as they are capable of exercising it, and many of 
them are represented in the home legislature at Paris. 

Questions and Topics. — I. For what did the radical party in France 
in 1 87 1 stand? Do we have such radicals in this country? Would a 
government be safe in their hands? Name the four French political 
parties at this time. How "did the Republicans secure and retain con- 
trol? 

II. How is the president of France elected? What are his powers 
as compared with those of the president of the United States? As to 
the manner of election, which do you like the better? Why? What is 
another important difference between our government and the French? 
Distinguish between a federal and a consolidated government. 

III. What can you tell of French progress since 1870? of the 
peasant class? of the school system? State the relations between 
the government and the Catholic Church. When did modern France 
become a colonizing country? Describe her colonial expansion. 

For Further Reading. — McCarthy, History of Our Own Times. Robin- 
son, Readings in European History, II. Wright, A History of the Third French 
Republic. 



CHAPTER XLI 
GERMANY AFTER 1871 

I. Government of the German Empire 

504. Constitution of the German Empire. — While the German 
government set up under Bismarck's influence in 1871 was 
overthrown within fifty years, it is worth our study because it 
had much to do with shaping the recent history of Europe. It is 
interesting, also, because it contrasted so strongly with the French 
government which we have just studied in the preceding chapter. 
The new constitution of Germany, like that of Prussia (sec. 483), 
gave the monarch nearly absolute power and the people little 
influence in the government. 

The German Empire created in 1871 was made up of twenty- 
five states and the imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine. Four 
of these states were kingdoms (Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and 
Wiirttemberg) ; six were grand duchies ; five were duchies ; 
seven were principalities, and three were free cities. Prussia 
was much larger than all the rest of the states combined. The 
German kings, grand dukes, dukes, and princes, in framing the 
constitution, kept much of their power of local government. 
Unlike the centralized government of France, therefore, the 
German Empire had a federal government. 

The constitution of the German Empire was adopted in 
March, 1871.^ It gave the kaiser (kl'zer) or emperor, who was 
also king of Prussia, power over the army and the management of 
foreign affairs, also the power to declare war and make treaties 
without the consent of the people or of their representatives. 

1 It was somewhat similar to the constitution of the North German Confederation 
adopted in 1867. 

571 



572 



The Progress of Democracy 



The upper house of the lawmaking body was the Bundesrat 
(bobn'des-rat) or Federal Council, which was composed of fifty-six 
members chosen by the sovereigns of the various states. Of 
these Prussia had seventeen, Alsace-Lorraine (under the emperor's 
control) four, Bavaria six, and other states from one to four each. 
As several of the lesser sovereigns were always sure to work in 
harmony with the emperor (king of Prussia), the Bundesrat was 
practically under the emperor's control. 




The States of the German Empire 

Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Wiirttemberg, Baden, Hesse, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 

Anhalt, Waldeck, Lippe, Hamburg, Bremen, LUbeck, and twelve named in the corner 

of the map. Notice that some states are made up of separated areas; for example, 

the four parts of Brunswick. ^ 



The lower house, called the Reichstag (riKs'tax), was composed 
of 397 members chosen by the voters (men over twenty-five years 

^In 1919 eight of the smallest states (numbered 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 on the map) 
were united in the new state of Thuringia. 



Government of the German Empire 573 

old) for a term of five years ; 236 of them were elected from 
Prussia. This body had far less power than the Bundesrat, 




German Reichstag in Session 

which originated nearly all the laws. Even the taxing laws were 
in a great measure beyond the reach of the Reichstag, because 
they were standing laws in force year after year without being 
reenacted. The chief importance of the Reichstag lay in its right 
to debate, a means by which the people were enabled to keep 
informed on matters of government. 

The active head of the ministry or executive branch of the 
government was the chancellor, who was appointed and removed 
by the emperor. This position was held by Bismarck for many 
years after the formation of the empire. Unlike the French or 
British premier, the German chancellor was not " responsible," 
that is, not responsible to the Reichstag. He did not need to 
resign if defeated in that body. 

505. Character of the German Government. — The German 
Empire was far more autocratic in government than any other 
European country except Russia and Turkey. 

The German government was also extremely paternal. In no 
other country were there such laws against food adulteration or 
anything that would impair the public health. But the liberty 



574 The Progress of Democracy 

of the citizen was curbed at all points. The police system was 
rigid in the extreme, and a policeman's testimony in a court was 
of much greater weight than that of an ordinary witness. If a 
housewife spread a handkerchief on her window sill she might 
be fined for violating the law against drying clothes in public. 
" The policeman," said one writer, " strolls into your house or 
garden when he likes." To free-born Americans and Englishmen 
the dominating German police system was utterly distasteful. 

The Prussian military system which proved so effective in the 
wars of 1866 and of 1870 was extended over the whole empire. 
The compulsory military training and the excessive standing 
armies imposed a heavy burden on the tax-paying public, in 
addition to keeping great numbers of young men out of industrial 
pursuits. 

II. Germany from 1871 to 1914 

506. Emperor William and his Great Chancellor. — The 

two most conspicuous figures in the new empire were William I 
and Bismarck. The emperor had reached the ripe age of seventy- 
four when elevated to the newly erected throne, but he was 
destined to spend seventeen years as the head of the empire. He 
was a " fine old man " of great kindliness of heart and deep 
religious convictions. But he was a stanch believer in the 
" divine right " theory and had little sympathy with liberal 
government. Though overshadowed by the transcendent genius 
of Bismarck, William was a man of much political sagacity: he 
never relinquished his royal prerogative nor shirked the responsi- 
bility that belonged to his great office. 

Bismarck, however, like his great Italian prototype, Cavour, 
was the real creator of the empire. The goal for which he had 
striven for many years was won. It is uncertain how sincere he 
may have been when he requested his dismissal from his master, 
now that his life-work was accomplished. The answer was the 
single word " Never," and the two continued their work together 
for nearly two decades longer. During all this period the " Iron 



Germany from 187 1 to 1914 575 

Chancellor " had almost complete control of the home and foreign 
affairs of Germany. Doubtless he enjoyed the exercise of his 
power ; but he was unselfish, he despised pomp, and cared little 
for personal honors ; ^ his whole being was devoted to one object 
— the building up of Germany. Imperious by nature, he was 
often severe, almost heartless, in his dealings with other men and 
with nations, but his devotion to his country was unfaltering. 
Scarcely greater was Bismarck's work in rmifying Germany than 
in the management of the empire for nearly twenty years. 

Fearing the sleepless resentment of France on account of the 
loss of Alsace-Lorraine, Prince Bismarck's foreign pohcy was 
directed to keeping that country weak. For a number of years 
he prevented any coalition between France and other powers. 
In 1879 he brought about an alliance between the German Empire 
and Austria-Hungary, which later became the Triple Alliance 
when Italy joined it. 

507. The Church Quarrel. — A quarrel with the Catholic 
Church was brought about partly by the decree of the Vatican 
Council held at Rome in 1870, which pronounced the pope infallible 
in defining the doctrines of the church regarding faith and morals. 
Some of the Germans and Swiss refused to accept this doctrine ; 
they seceded from the church and formed the " Old Catholic " sect. 
Bismarck took advantage of this defection and sided with the 
malcontents, in the hope of making the state supreme over the 
church. But the majority of discontented churchmen fell back 
into line within a year or two and the chancellor found himself 
with a serious problem on his hands. 

He secured the passage of laws to expel the Jesuits, to make 
bishops and priests §tate officials, and to take from the church the 
control of marriage and education. For several years, from 1875 
to 1879, these laws were in effect. The pope pronounced them 
null and void, and all faithful Catholics felt in duty bound to 

1 In 1871 Bismarck was raised to the rank of Prince. One day soon after his 
elevation the Austrian minister asked him how he enjoyed his new honors, and he 
answered that he felt quite as comfortable as before. 



576 The Progress of Democracy 

disregard them. The resuh was that great numbers of churches 
and schools were closed and many priests and teachers were 
thrown into prison. 

Bismarck had boasted that he " would not go to Canossa " 
(sec. 222), but at length he began to weaken. Several causes 
contributed to his change of front. One was the fact that 
Pope Pius IX died in 1878 and the chancellor recognized the pos- 
sibility of making peace with his successor, Leo XIII. Another 
cause was _that the CathoUc members in the Reichstag had formed 
a compact party called the Center. This party opposed the 
chancellor, not only with regard to the anti-Catholic laws, but 
in other matters in which he needed their assistance, especially 
in combating the Socialists, who were rapidly gaining strength 
in Germany. The obnoxious laws were therefore repealed one by 
one, and the chancellor turned about to grapple with his next foe. 

508. Karl Marx and Socialism. — The creator of modern 
socialism was Karl Marx, a German born of Jewish parents. He 
was a profound philosophic thinker, and exerted a widespread 
influence. In nearly every country to-day there is a political 
party that calls itself Socialist and builds its doctrines on the 
writings of Marx. Too radical to please the German authorities, 
Marx was forced while yet a young man to flee from his native 
land. He took up his residence in Paris, but being expelled 
from France, he found refuge in London, which became his per- 
manent home. 

In his numerous writings Marx advanced the doctrine that as 
wealth is created by labor it should be owned by the laborers. 
He declared that history is the record of struggles between classes 
— that in ancient times it was a struggle between the master 
and the slave, in the Middle Ages it was between the feudal lord 
and the serf, and that in modern times the contest is between the 
employer and the laborer. He believed that the employer should 
be dispensed with and that the state should own the sources of 
wealth. His greatest work, Capital, published in 1867, has become 
the bible of socialism. 



Germany from 1871 to 1914 - 577 

509. Socialist Doctrines. — Socialists of the present time have 
modified the doctrines of Marx to some extent, and they are by 
no means agreed at all points among themselves ; but in general 
they assert that our economic and industrial system is wrong, 
because under it one man may amass great wealth and another 
may remain poor and dependent and sometimes unemployed ; 
because one man receives more and another less than his rightful 
share of the wealth produced by society ; and because one man 
is permitted to govern another man's time or make a profit on 
his labor. They also deplore the great waste through competition 
and competitive advertising and through business panics and 
unemployment. 

The remedy for social and industrial evils lies, according to the 
Socialists, in government ownership. Let the state, as the agent 
of the people, own and operate all sources of wealth and the means 
of transportation — the mines, the factories, the railroads, etc. ; 
and let all the people be employed by the state. Under the 
Socialist plan, while a man might own his home he could not 
employ his fellow-man or produce commodities for the market; 
that would be done only by the government. And under govern- 
ment control the Socialists claim that more goods would be pro- 
duced with less labor, and would be distributed fairly — some 
say equally. 

The great majority of people do not believe that the Socialist 
program is workable ; they believe that it would result in ineffi- 
cient and therefore lessened production, and an arbitrary distribu- 
tion of the decreased product ; that the average laborer would 
very soon fare worse under that system than at present. They 
argue that, after all, any government is human, that there is no 
superhuman power to allot to each member of society his rightful 
place, but that each man can best find it for himself by personal 
effort and through competition with his fellows. The Socialists 
are accused of taking too little account of the great and obvious 
fact that nature made men utterly unlike in their capacities ; 
some are born to lead and others to follow, and while the state 



578 The Progress of Democracy 

should protect the weak by wise laws, any system that would 
equalize them forcefully would be a striving against nature and 
would be disastrous. 

510. Socialism in Germany. — The chief founder of the 
Socialist party in Germany was Lassalle (la-sal'), a brilliant 
writer and able organizer, who was killed in a duel in 1864 at the 
age of thirty-nine. Though Lassalle and Marx differed widely 
at some points, their respective followers combined in 1875 and 
formed the Social Democratic party. Two years later the party 
cast half a milhon votes and won twelve seats in the Reichstag. 
The party was composed almost wholly of the laboring classes, 
and their object was to combat the privileges of the capitalist 
class. 

Bismarck was alarmed lest the movement endanger the empire, 
and his fear was increased by two attempts on the life of Emperor 
William. He believed that socialism should be suppressed, and 
in 1878 he secured the passage of laws giving the government 
authority to suppress Socialist newspapers, to forbid public meet- 
ings, and to suspend the right of trial by jury. These laws were 
rigidly enforced, and for a few years they gave the appearance of 
seriously crippling socialism. 

The Iron Chancellor, however, saw that socialism was not 
dead, and he tried another policy. He secured the passage of laws 
providing pensions for laborers disabled by sickness, accident, or 
old age. Bismarck declared his belief that if the government 
would take care of the indigent laborers the call of the Socialists 
would be in vain. In the enactment of such laws Germany 
preceded all other countries, and they have done great good ; but 
they did not destroy socialism. 

By 1890 the Socialist vote in Germany reached almost a million 
and a half. From that time the growth of the Socialists was 
rapid. In 1912 the party polled 4,240,000 out of a vote of about 
12,000,000. 

Its aims were not so radical as some would believe. It advo- 
cated an eight-hour labor day, child labor law, initiative and 



Germany from 1871 to 1914 



579 



referendum, progressive income tax, and various other things, 
that would not be considered extreme in this country. 

511. William II and the Fall of Bismarck. — With all the 
remarkable successes in the career of the Iron Chancellor, he was 
conscious of defeat in his contention with the Catholic Church 
and again in his fight 
with the Socialists ; 
but his greatest hu- 
miliation remained for 
his old age. 

Emperor WiUiam I, 
who was opposed to 
liberal government, 
died in 1888 at the 
great age of ninety- 
one. His son and suc- 
cessor, a son-in-law of 
Queen Victoria of 
England, was Fred- 
erick III. He was an 
admirer of the liberal 
government of Great 
Britain, and not in 
sympathy with his 
father and Bismarck. 
But he was suffering 
with a fatal disease 
and he wore the im- 
perial crown but three months. He died in June, 1888, and was 
succeeded by his son, William II, then twenty-nine years old. 

William II proved to be a man of " tempestuous energy," a leader 
who could brook no rival leader in the same class with himself. 
The result was that he and Bismarck soon quarreled and the great 
chancellor was dismissed from his office (1890). He retired to 
his estates and spent his remaining nine years in private life. 




Bismarck 
Portrait by Lenbach. 



580 The Progress of Democracy 

William II was as much opposed to liberalism as was his grand- 
father. Frequently he declared his belief in the divine right of 
kings, as the doctrine was held two centuries ago. In an address 
in 1890 he pronounced the French Revolution " an unmitigated 
crime against God and man." Whatever tendency toward 
democracy there was in Germany during his reign came not from 
him, but from the Liberal and Socialist parties. He maintained 
" personal rule," and all great political questions were decided 
by himself and not by his ministers. He was, however, under 
the influence of the Junkers (yoong'kerz) , or landowning nobles 
of Prussia, the class from which came most of the high officials, 
the army generals, and the great financial magnates of the country. 

512. Germ.an Colonies. — At the eleventh hour Germany 
woke up to the importance of securing colonial possessions. 
Great Britain had acquired a vast colonial empire, France and 
other countries had caught the modern colony-building spirit ; 
but the German states before the founding of the empire had no 
colonizing impulse, and it was some years after that event before 
German interest in the subject was awakened. When the terms 
of peace with France were made in 1871 it seems to have occurred 
to no one to demand the cession of Indo-China, the great French 
possession in the Far East. 

In the early eighties Germany began to cast about for colonial 
possessions, for two reasons : to open up new regions for German 
trade, and to furnish a home under their own flag for those who 
desired to leave the Fatherland. To the United States alone 
two million Germans had migrated in the twenty years ending in 
1885. 

But Germany was late in the field. The earth was well nigh 
parceled out already. South America offered a tempting prize, 
but the Monroe Doctrine guarded the gateway of the Western 
World. Asia was largely preempted by Russia, France, and Great 
Britain. Africa offered the most available field. The explora- 
tions of Livingstone and Stanley had called the world's attention 
to the future possibilities of the Dark Continent, and with the 




20 Longitude Weat 



20 East from .40 Greenwich 60 



facing 581 



Africa in 19 14 



In the World War of 1914-1918, Germany lost her colonies. The western borders 
of Togo and of Kamerun passed under British control, but the greater part of these 
colonies was taken over by the French. The British secured control of German 
East Africa, with the exception of the northwest corner, which went to Belgium. 
German Southwest Africa was assigned to the Union of South Africa, a British 
self-governing dominion 



Germany from 187 1 to 1914 581 

occupation of Egypt by Great Britain in 1882 (sec. 528) the real 
scramble for African territory began. Before that time Great 
Britain, France, Portugal, and other states had possession of small 
portions, but nine tenths of the great mysterious continent was 
still unclaimed by civihzed man. 

Under Bismarck's leadership, Germany adopted an African 
policy in 1884. The possession of Togo and Kamerun (ka- 
ma-roon') on the coast of Guinea was soon followed by the acqui- 
sition of two great tracts known as German Southwest Africa and 
German East Africa. These possessions aggregated more than a 
million square miles, supporting a great population of whom only 
a small fraction were white. 

Germany also acquired several groups of islands in the western 
Pacific Ocean, and in 1897 she gained a foothold in China, as 
Great Britain, France, and Russia had done before. The murder 
of two German missionaries by Chinese furnished the occasion 
for demanding from China the very important harbor of Kiaochow 
(kyou'cho') and the adjacent territory. This possession proved 
of great advantage to German trade. 

513. Later Development and Progress of Germany. — Unlike 
France, Germany increased greatly in population after 1871. In 
spite of the heavy emigration from the country, the population 
of the empire increased from 41,000,000 to 65,000,000 in less than 
fifty years. In 1870 the one great industry was agriculture. But 
so great a population in a country but four fifths the size of Texas 
could hardly live by farming alone. A normal remedy for the 
threatened shortage of food was to engage in manufacturing, to 
develop foreign commerce, and to trade the products of the 
factory for foodstuffs. The German nation set out to become a 
manufacturing people. 

Wonderful was the industrial progress of the Germans after the 
beginning of the empire. They borrowed many of their ideas 
from other nations, but their own scientists and inventors, notably 
painstaking and thorough in technical skill, aided greatly in the 
industrial life of the country. The seizure of Alsace-Lorraine 



582 



The Progress of Democracy 



added much to Germany's supply of iron and coal, and at the 
same time crippled her rival France. The empire adopted a high 
protective tariff system, and aided German manufacturers to se- 
cure foreign markets. The demand for labor at home became so 
great that emigration almost ceased. 




Hanging Railway between Barmen and Elberfeld, Germany 

This suspended trolley line is built over the bed of the River Wupper and con- 
nects two neighboring cities in one of the most important manufacturing centers 
of Germany., The rapid industrial and commercial development of Germany had 
a significant bearing on its domestic and foreign policies before the World War. 



The results of the new conditions were the rapid growth of cities, 
a great increase in the number of laborers, the building of an 
extensive merchant marine, and a great foreign trade. In 19 14 
the only nations that outranked Germany in manufacturing and 
commerce were the United States and Great Britain. 

Meanwhile Germany had built up an educational system that 
attracted world-wide attention. Education was compulsory, 
and the percentage of illiteracy very low. But in one respect 
German education differed from that in all other countries. It 
was made to support and exalt the autocracy, from the kinder- 



Germany from 187 1 to 19 14 583 

garten to the university. School children were taught to revere 
the kaiser until he became to them almost a god, and the Father- 
land was exalted until all other countries were dwarfed in com- 
parison. The result of this feature of German education was that 
the German people, by nature docile and kind-hearted, were led 
to foster a narrow and selfish patriotism and to support their 
rulers in schemes of aggression however ruthless. 

Questions and Topics. — I. Compare the constitutions of France 
and of the German Empire. What is a federal government? Which 
of the two German houses was granted the greater power? How 
does the British government compare with the German in this respect? 
If one house of a bicameral legislature is elected by the people and the 
other not, as in both Germany and Great Britain, which should have 
the more governing power? Why? What is meant by paternalism? 
Describe the German police system. 

II. Describe the character of Bismarck. Why did he wish to keep 
France weak? What can you tell of his quarrel with the Catholic 
Church ? What can you tell of Karl Marx ? What are the fundamental 
principles of socialism? What can you tell of Frederick III? Of 
William II, and his quarrel with Bismarck? Tell when and how Ger- 
many began to acquire colonies ; of her industrial progress ; her school 
system. 

For Further Reading. — Henderson, Short History of Germany. Lowell, 
Governments and Parties in Continental Europe, 2 vols. Also Fyffe, Andrews 
and Seignobos, before mentioned. 



CHAPTER XLII 
GREAT BRITAIN AFTER 1850 

I. Disraeli and Gladstone 

514. Passing of Robert Peel. — Sir Robert Peel, with the aid 
of such men as Richard Cobden and John Bright, had brought 
about the repeal of the British corn laws (sec. 468). But in doing 
this Peel was obliged to trample on the principles of the Conserva- 
tive party to which he had always belonged. Bitterly attacked, 
he swung awa}' from the party and carried with him about forty 
members of Parliament who were afterward known as " Peelites." 

Robert Peel had been a leader in the House of Commons for 
forty years. Though not gifted with oratory, he had great powers 
of leadership among his immediate followers. Deeply devoted 
to the welfare of his country, he did not hesitate to sacrifice his 
party or himself if convinced that the public good demanded the 
sacrifice. Two of his most enduring monuments — Catholic 
emancipation in 1829 and the repeal of the corn laws in 1846 — 
were both erected in the face of the opposition of his own party. 
In 1850 Peel was killed by a fall from his horse. England still 
remembers him as one of the strongest men of his time. 

For twenty years after the repeal of the corn laws the British 
government held the even tenor of its way. The most important 
occurrences were the Crimean War (sec. 485) and the stirring 
events in India (sec. 524). During this period the leading men 
in the public eye were Lords John Russell, Derby, Aberdeen, and 
Palmerston, none of whose achievements were so vital as to re- 
quire notice in our brief space. 

Meantime Gladstone (glad'stun) and Disraeli (diz-ra'li) were 

584 



Disraeli and Gladstone 585 

approaching the period of their mature powers, and with the 
passing of the elder statesmen they were ready to take up the 
reins of government. Disraeli became prime minister first in 
1868, but his hold on the Commons was so precarious that he was 
forced to resign within the year and give place to his great rival. 

515. Beginning of Gladstone's Career. — William Ewart 
Gladstone, born in 1809, the son of a rich, aristocratic merchant 
of Liverpool, received a thorough education at Oxford, and en- 
tered the House of Commons in 1833. For sixty years he was 
continuously in public life. Four times he held the great office 
of premier. Like Peel he would sacrifice himself or his party for 
the public good. He was deeply religious ; he had a wonderful 
store of knowledge outside the realm of his profession. For half 
a century he was regarded as the most eloquent public speaker 
in England, with the possible exception of John Bright. In his 
later career he was known as the " Grand Old Man." 

Gladstone was " brought up to distrust and dislike liberty," 
as he confessed. He entered Parliament as a Tory at the age of 
twenty-four. Though born and bred a Tory, he was by nature 
a liberal and a democrat. He became a Peelite and later the 
leader of the Liberal party. 

Gladstone's first ministry was over five years, 1 868-1 874. It was 
a period of extraordinary reforms. First among these were the 
Irish reforms to be noticed later (sec. 520). Next came the Edu- 
cation Act of 1870. Great Britain had lagged sadly behind the 
United States, Prussia, and other countries in the matter of edu- 
' eating her children. Of the four million children of school age in 
1870 not more than half had any school opportunities whatever. 
Parliament had granted niggardly sums in the past. In 1839, 
for example, when 70,000 pounds were devoted to building the 
queen's stables, 30,000 pounds had been granted for schools. 
Certainly it was time for Great Britain to wake up to the impor- 
tance of educating the masses if she hoped to retain her place 
among enUghtened nations. The law of 1870, which need not 
here be described, proved a great step in the right direction. This 

EL. M. T. — 38 



=^86 



The Progress of Democracy 



was amended and improved in 1902, but even yet Great Britain 
does not stand in the front rank in the matter of public education. 
Two or three other important reforms marked this same year, 
1870. One was a reform in the civil service by which candidates 
for appointment to many positions were required to take competi- 
tive examinations. 
Another of equal 
or greater impor- 
tance was an abo- 
lition of the sale 
of commissions in 
the army. It had 
been the custom 
of the rich and 
influential to buy 
their promotion, a 
plan by which 
many incompe- 
tents were placed 
in responsible po- 
sitions. The cus- 
tom was abolished 
in the face of fierce 
opposition. 

In 1 871 the 
great universities 
of Oxford and 
Cambridge were 
thrown open to Roman Catholics and Protestant Dissenters, no 
religious test being required. 

These and various other reforms made the Gladstone minis- 
try unpopular. Each reform alienated certain classes, and when 
a new election was held in 1874 the Liberal party was defeated, 
the Conservatives winning by a large majority. 

The Gladstone ministry with all its vigorous reforms at home 




Gladstone, about 1870 



Disraeli and Gladstone 587 

was weak in foreign relations. The only foreign matter of primary 
importance disposed of was the Alabama claims of the United 
States, which were settled by arbitration. On the other hand, 
Disraeli instituted a vigorous foreign policy. 

516. Disraeli, Lord Beaconsfield. — Benjamin Disraeli was a 
lifelong rival and political enemy of Gladstone. Born of Jewish 
parents,! the son of a famous man of letters, Disraeli early dis- 
played a brilliant mind and became the author of several success- 
ful novels. He entered Parliament as a Tory or Conservative 
and so remained to the end of his life. When Peel forsook his 
party to repeal the corn laws, Disraeli was his keenest and bitter- 
est critic. Later Disraeli became the leader of his party and was 
premier in 1868 and again in 1 874-1 880. In 1876 he became Lord 
Bea'consfield and took his seat in the House of Lords. 

Perhaps the greatest service Disraeli ever rendered his country 
was his purchase of a controlling interest in the Suez Canal, the 
eastern gateway of the Mediterranean. On the completion of 
the canal in 1869 by the famous French engineer, De Lesseps', 
it was quickly seen what a great advantage it would be to Great 
Britain on account of her relations to India. In 1875 Disraeli 
seized an opportunity to make the purchase for his government, 
and since then Great Britain has had control of the great water- 
way. 

Another signal victory of the Disraeli ministry was that of the 
Congress of Berlin in 1878, but the honor of that victory is open 
to question. Russia had made war on Turkey in defense of the 
outraged Christian subjects of the sultan. Turkey was defeated, 
and the treaty of San Stefano (sta'fa-no), which marked the end 
of the war, gave Russia some advantages that aroused British 
jealousy. Disraeli (now called Lord Beaconsfield) cared little 
for the welfare of the Christians in Turkey, and he was obsessed 
with a consuming fear of Russia. The Congress of Berlin was a 
notable assembly of great powers. Its purpose was to revise the 
treaty of San Stefano, under which the boundaries of Bulgaria 
1 The family, however, were converted to the Church of England. 



588 The Progress of Democracy 

were extended to take in nearly all of Macedonia. Bulgaria was 
supposed to be under Russian influence, and the powers were 
afraid that Russia might grow too strong in the Balkans and per- 
haps even get control of Constantinople later on. The Congress 
of Berlin therefore arranged a new treaty by which most of Mace- 
donia was put back under Turkish rule, and the Christians there 
were left unprotected from the cruelties of the sultan. 

Gladstone had retired from the leadership of his party, but he 
was so displeased with the policy of Beaconsfield that- he went 
up and down the country denouncing it in bitter terms to the 
great crowds that gathered to hear him. And he won in the end. 
At the next election his rival was finally overthrown and Gladstone 
again was called to the premiership. 

517. The Second and Third Reforms of Parliament. — The 
most notable single enactment of British law in the nineteenth 
century was the Reform of 1832, related in a former chapter (sec. 
461). But it was incomplete. It redistributed the seats in Par- 
liament and it extended the franchise, but the representation was 
still uneven, and five Englishmen out of every six were still ex- 
cluded from the ballot. Thirty-five years passed before it was 
agreed by both great parties that further reform was necessary. 
Hence came the Second Reform Bill, 1867. 

By this act a redistribution of seats in Parliament was provided 
for and the franchise was extended to a great number of men who 
had previously been without the vote. But a property test was 
still required and great numbers of farm laborers and miners yet 
remained without the right to vote. Hence there was room for 
still further reform. 

The Third Reform Bill, 1884, came in the second ministry of 
Gladstone. By this bill the franchise was extended to almost 
all classes of men, adding about 2,000,000 to the voting list of the 
realm. The next year a third redistributing of the seats in the 
House of Commons was enacted and the number of members was 
increased to 670, of whom 495 were elected from England (and 
Wales), 72 from Scotland, and 103 from Ireland. 



Ireland and the Irish 589 

II. Ireland and the Irish 

518. Ireland Conquered by the English. — The Irish are a Cel- 
tic race, and not, like the English and most of the Scotch, of 
Teutonic origin. As early as 11 70 the EngUsh king, Henry II, 
made an effort to conquer the island, but met with slight success. 
Nearly four centuries passed after the time of Henry II before the 
English gained much foothold in Ireland. Henry VIII made an 
effort to extend English law over the island, and during the reigns 
of Edward VI and Mary, and especially of Elizabeth, many of the 
fighting clans were conquered, about one third of the population 
being destroyed. In that same century was begun the baneful 
system which was the chief cause of the bitter feeling between the 
two peoples — the parceling out of Irish lands to English land- 
lords. The process continued under later sovereigns until the 
greater part of the country was owned by " absentee " landlords, 
so called because they resided in England. 

The lot of the Irish peasant was a hard one. Living in a miser- 
able hovel, he was obliged to pay in rent to his landlord nearly 
all that he could earn above what was necessary to keep him and 
his family from starvation. If he drained a swamp or improved 
a building or fertilized the soil, his rent was speedily raised and 
the fruits of his extra labor went to his landlord.^ Moreover, he 
could be evicted from his home at any time and for any reason 
by his landlord. A small number of English, who had settled in 
Ireland, constituted the ruling class and controlled the Irish 
Parliament. 

Again and again the Irish rose against their masters, only to 
be put down. After one of these uprisings, in 1798, William Pitt 
the younger, then premier of Great Britain, determined to bring 
about a union of the governments of the two islands. The Act 
of Union, passed in 1800, made Ireland a part of the United 
Kingdom, with representatives in the British Parliament at 
London. 

1 Except in Ulster, the northern part of Ireland, settled chiefly by Scotch. 



590 The Progress of Democracy 

519. Gladstone and the Irish Question. — On becoming prime 
minister for the first time, in 1868, the first thing that Gladstone 
did was to have a law passed disestablishing the Protestant Epis- 
copal Church in Ireland. Before that time the Irish, although 
most of them had always been Roman Catholics, were taxed to 
support the established Episcopal Church. But since 1868 that 
church has been without support from the government. 

Repressive laws, potato famines, and a continuous stream of 
emigration for many years, chiefly to the United States, had 
greatly reduced the population.' The two Irish problems yet to 
be solved were the land question and the Home Rule question. 
For many years these have occupied the attention of the British 
Parliament. 

520. The Irish Land Laws. — The disestabUshment of the 
church having been disposed of, Gladstone turned his attention 
to the land question. In 1870 a law was passed, the main features 
of which were (i) the right of a tenant when evicted to receive 
from the landlord a compensation for the improvements he had 
made, and (2) an arrangement by which a tenant might receive 
a long-time loan from the government to aid him in buying his 
little farm. In 1881, during the second ministry of Gladstone, 
another land bill was passed creating a court by which a ' ' fair 
rent " for the Irish tenant was to be fixed. 

The second ministry of Gladstone (1880-1885), was followed by 
a Conservative ministry with the Marquis of Salisbury as premier. 
One of its first acts was an improvement of the Irish land laws. 
The land laws of 1870 and of 1881 had provided that only a part 
of the money required by a tenant in purchasing his farm be ad- 
vanced by the government, and few of the tenants took advantage 
of the opportunity. The new law provided that the government 
advance the whole purchase price, at four per cent, repayable in 
forty-nine years. 

The final settlement of the land question came in 1903, when a 

1 The population of Ireland in 1841 was 8,175,124; in 1871 it was 5,412,377; 
in 1911 it was 4,390,219. 



Ireland and the Irish 591 

Conservative government passed a law providing for the loan of 
the sum of $500,000,000 to the Irish tenants to enable them 
to purchase their farms. This law seems to be working well and 
promises to settle the Irish land question to the satisfaction of all. 

521. Gladstone and Home Rule. — The leader of the Irish 
party in Parliament and the champion of Home Rule was Charles 
Stewart Par'nell. Though a Protestant, Parnell espoused the 
cause of the Irish Catholics. He was the leading agitator in 
securing the land laws and was foremost in promoting Home 
Rule for Ireland. Home Rule did not mean independence, but 
the establishing of a local Parliament in Dublin to legislate in 
Irish affairs. 

In 1886, for a third time, Gladstone became prime minister and 
soon afterward startled his party and the whole country by coming 
out for Irish Home Rule. But he caused a disruption of his own 
party. Nearly a hundred Liberals, led by John Bright and Joseph 
Chamberlain, seceded from his party, called themselves Liberal 
Unionists, and later joined the Conservative party. 

Gladstone made a brave fight for Home Rule, but was defeated 
in the Commons ; and in the new election that followed, the same 
year, 1886, the Conservatives won a victory. Lord Salisbury 
again became premier and held the post until 1892, when the Lib- 
erals came back to power and for a fourth time Gladstone was 
premier. 

In February, 1893, Gladstone introduced his second Home Rule 
Bill, though the Liberal majority in the House of Commons was 
only forty and would have been a minority but for the Irish mem- 
bers. The Home Rule bill of 1886 excluded Irish members from 
the British Parliament at London, but that of 1893 did not. After 
an exciting debate of three months the bill passed the House of 
Commons, but in the House of Lords it was defeated by a large 
majority. 

Gladstone was chagrined at the defeat of his measure, but he 
did not feel that the demand of the country for its passage was 
great enough to warrant him in making another effort. More- 



592 The Progress of Democracy- 

over, he was weary of pubhc hfe after his service of more than half 
a century, and bending under the burden of eighty-five years, the 
Grand Old Man resigned his office (1894) and retired to his estate 
in Wales, where he died in 1898. Home Rule was abandoned for 
a time, nor did it occupy the center of the stage again for nearly 
twenty years. 

522. Later Stages of Home Rule. — The Liberals made the 
passing of an Irish Home Rule measure a part of their program 
in the general election of 19 10, and they won the election. 

In April, 1912, Premier Herbert Henry Asquith introduced a 
Home Rule Bill in the House of Commons. Although the House 
of Lords had by that time been deprived of its veto power (sec. 
534), a determined opposition came from another quarter. Most 
of the people of Ulster (northern Ireland) were opposed to Home 
Rule. A large majority of them were Protestants and they 
feared a dominating control of Irish affairs by the Cathohcs.^ 

The opposition from Ulster became very serious. It was led 
by Sir Edward Carson, a brilliant lawyer and former cabinet 
member. A great gathering of 150,000 Ulstermen in July, 19 13, 
adopted a resolution to resist Home Rule by arms if it became 
necessary. An Ulster army of 100,000 was enrolled and civil war 
seemed imminent. 

Mr. Asquith proposed a compromise offering to grant the nine 
counties of Ulster the option of remaining outside the operation 
of the law for a period of six years. The Ulster leaders demanded 
to know what was to happen at the end of the six years. No 
settlement on that point was reached. Several high officials of 
the army resigned, declaring that they would not make war on 
Ulster. In spite of all this the Home Rule Bill passed its third 
reading in the House of Commons on May 25, 1914, and was ready 

1 The bill, however, provided that the Irish Parliament should not make any law 
to establish any religion or prohibit the free exercise thereof; nor should it make 
laws affecting the army, the navy, coinage, or foreign relations. The Irish Parlia- 
ment was to consist of a Senate of 40 members and a House of Commons of 164 
members, and Ireland was to have a reduced representation (42 members) in the 
House of Commons in London. 




60 Long-itude 30 



I 



The British Colonial Empire 593 

to be sent to the king for his signature regardless of what the House 
of Lords might do. 

Then, late in July, came the outbreak of the World War. The 
Ulstermen forgot their opposition in the face of the foreign peril ; 
some of the Catholic Irish also rallied to the defense of their com- 
mon country. The Home Rule Bill was suspended, and the sub- 
ject of Home Rule was left over for the future. Some Irishmen 
were demanding the entire independence of Ireland ; others would 
be satisfied with partial self-government such as the Home Rule 
bills had proposed ; but the Ulstermen objected to either plan. 



III. The British Colonial Empire 

523. Extent and Character of the Empire. — When Rome 
" sat on her seven hills and ruled the world " she ruled perhaps 
one fourth as many people and one fifth as much land as now com- 
prise the British Empire. The English have been the greatest 
colonizers in iiistory, though they began to give attention to colo- 
nization only about four centuries ago. 

The British Empire in 1914 comprised about 12,000,000 square 
miles with a population of 425,000,000, one fourth of the human 
race. Of this vast number of people only about one eighth 
were of English, Scotch, or Irish blood. Most of the remaining 
seven eighths were Africans or Orientals, great numbers of whom 
were only partly civilized. Whatever may be said of the land- 
greed of Great Britain, it cannot be denied that wherever she has 
broken down a native government by conquest or otherwise, 
she has set up a better one in its place. She learned her lesson in 
the American Revolution and she makes no pretense of taxing her 
colonies for her own benefit. The expansion of England into this 
immense empire has been a great civilizing force and her colonial 
policy has always been infinitely superior to that of ancient Rome. 

. To the empire in 19 14 belonged four great continental posses- 
sions — India, Canada, Australia, and South Africa. All of these 
except India are self-governing, and almost independent except 



594 



The Progress of Democracy 



in the control of their foreign relations. To these immense conti- 
nental possessions must be added Newfoundland, New Zealand, 
British Guiana, Egypt, British East Africa and other African pos- 
sessions ; also the great fortress of Gibraltar, the islands of Trini- 
dad, Jamaica, Cyprus, Ceylon, and many others in all parts of the 
world. A few of these must have a separate notice. 




Indian Princes in the Durbar Procession 

In December, igii, George V was crowned Emperor of India, at Delhi. The visit 

of King George and Queen Mary to India on this occasion was the first such visit 

of the king and queen in the history of British rule. The Durbar was a gathering 

of the native rulers of India, to take part in the coronation ceremonies. 



524. British India. — The acquisition of British authority in 
India under Lord Clive, in rivalry with the French, has been re- 
lated in a former chapter (sec. 369). Perhaps the greatest of all 



The British Colonial Empire 595 

English governors sent to India was Richard Wellesley, brother of 
the Duke of Wellington, the victor of Waterloo. Wellesley was 
sent out in 1798 and within a few years he had crushed all hopes 
of the French getting a foothold in the great peninsula, in spite 
of the intrigues of Napoleon with the native chiefs. Wellesley 
has been called the creator of the Indian Empire. In 1848 the 
Marquis of Dalhousie (dal-hoo'zi), another wise and able ruler, 
became governor of India. Within a few years he built roads and 
canals and railroads, threaded the country with telegraph wires, 
and built up harbors. 

The " Great Mutinj^ " came in 1857, a memorable year in the 
history of British India. This was not really an uprising of the 
people, but rather a conspiracy of chiefs and native soldiers who 
chafed under British rule because their opportunities for plunder- 
ing the people were greatly curtailed. The conspirators appealed 
to the religious prejudices of the people. They declared that the 
railroads and telegraph lines were magical bands to convert the 
people to Christianity, and that the use of greased cartridges by 
the British was an outrage and an insult to the religions that 
held sacred the animals from which the grease was obtained. 

The revolt covered a million square miles. Two British armies 
hastened to join the troops already there, and with the aid of many 
native soldiers order was restored early in 1858. The government 
of India was then transferred from the East India Company to 
the British crown, and later Queen Victoria was given the title 
of Empress of India. The governor of India, appointed by the 
British government, is now called Viceroy. Large parts of the 
country are still under native rulers, over whom Great Britain 
exercises a general suzerainty. 

525. Australia. — For centuries a belief prevailed in Europe 
that somewhere in the far-away South Pacific th^re was an un- 
known land of continental magnitude. Early in the seventeenth 
century Dutch traders discovered the north and west coasts of 
the island-continent of Australia. In 1770 Captain James Cook, 
an English explorer, sailed along the eastern coast and took 



596 



The Progress of Democracy 



possession of the whole land in the name of Great Britain. For a 
time Australia was a dumping ground for English convicts, but 
as more respectable settlers came in this practice was discontinued. 
About the year 1800 sheep raising was introduced, and proved to be 



tmmmmmmm 




An Australian Sheep Farm 



very profitable ; to-day there are tens of millions of sheep grazing 
on the boundless Australian plains. 

The discovery of gold in Australia in 1851 brought a great influx 
of fortune hunters, and a reign of disorder and violence which 
continued for years. At length order was restored, and in 1881, 
when the population was over 2,000,000, an unsuccessful effort 
was made to bring the different colonies of Australia under 
a single government. Twenty years later a federal union was 
brought about, largely through the efforts of Sir Henry Parkes, 
the " Grand Old Man of Australia." 

The Commonwealth of Australia was formed with the sanction 
of the British government, on the first day of the new century, 
January i, 1901. It is composed of six states — New South 



The British Colonial Empire 597 

Wales, Western Australia, South Australia, Queensland, Victoria, 
and the island-state of Tasmania. Each state has its own local 
government, the people electing one or both houses of their Parlia- 
ment, and the governor being appointed by the British crown. 
The Commonwealth is governed by a governor-general appointed 
by the crown, and a Parliament of two houses (Senate and House 
of Representatives) elected by the people. In all these govern- 
ments, the ministry is responsible to the elected lawmakers. 

The people of Australia, 5,000,000 in number, are chiefly of 
the English race, and their civilization measures up to the Euro- 
pean standard. But large areas of the country are barren and 
uninhabitable, while in the northern portion the tropical heat is 
so great as to be ill suited to the development of the white race. 

526. New Zealand lies far away in the South Pacific Ocean, 
in the south temperate zone, more than a thousand miles from 
Australia. It consists of two great islands. North Island and 
South Island, with a combined length of iioo miles, and numer- 
ous smaller islands. It was discovered by a Dutch navigator in 
1642 and was annexed to the British crown in 1840. The govern- 
ment of New Zealand is like that of other British self-governing 
colonies, with a governor appointed by Great Britain, a responsible 
ministry, and a General Assembly elected by the people. 

Both in Australia and in New Zealand women vote on equal 
terms with men, and various other governmental changes and 
experiments have been made in advance of other nations. For 
example, our own method of secret voting was borrowed from the 
Australian ballot laws. 

527. South Africa. — For more than a hundred years before its 
occupation by the British, Cape Colony in South Africa had been 
settled by Dutch immigrants, known as Boers (boorz), and a 
sprinkling of French Huguenots. It became a British colony in 
1 8 14 by purchase from the Netherlands (Holland).^ As English 
settlers came in, many of the Dutch colonists abandoned the region 

1 Since 1806, however, a British army had occupied the Cape, as a result of the 
war with Napoleon, who controlled Holland. 



598 The Progress of Democracy 

and tramped northward, driving their flocks and herds, and set- 
tled in Natal (na-tal')- When in 1844 the British annexed 
Natal the Boers moved again and settled in what is known as the 
Orange Free State, and still later many of them crossed the Vaal 
(val) River and made their home in the Transvaal'. Even the 
Transvaal was annexed by the British (1877) after putting down 
a serious uprising of the black natives. 

At length the Boers, weary of these constant encroachments 
of the British, rebelled against them and defeated them in a vig- 
orous short war, 1880-1881. Mr. Gladstone had just come into 
power in Great Britain, and, believing the Boers in the right, 
made treaties with them granting them self-government but 
retaining a general British protectorate over the country. 

For many years South Africa had been noted for its gold and 
diamond mines. In the eighties rich deposits of gold were found 
in the Transvaal. The result was that great numbers of for- 
eigners, chiefly Englishmen, rushed in. The Dutch farmers were 
greatly disturbed by attempts to overthrow their government. 
They declared war against Great Britain, and hence followed the 
Second Boer War, 1899-1902. The Transvaal Boers, joined 
by their brethren of the Orange Free State, proved to be 
heroic fighters. The British conquered only after a most 
desperate struggle ; nearly half a million men were sent into the 
field. 

Both the Transvaal and the Orange Free State were then an- 
nexed to the British crown, but the treatment of the conquered 
Boers was generous and conciliatory. They were granted a large 
measure of self-government and money was given them to restock 
their farms and rebuild their homes. 

In 1909 a federal Union of South Africa was formed under the 
British government. It is composed of four provinces — 'Cape 
of Good Hope, Natal, Orange Free State, and the Transvaal. 
There is an elected parliament of two houses, a responsible 
ministry, and a governor-general. That the Boers have become 
reconciled to their position in the British Empire is indicated by 



The British Colonial Empire 



599 




Memorial to Cecil J. Rhodes, Builder of British Africa 

On Table Mountain, near Cape Town. Much of the African territory now included 
in the British Empire was acquired through the patriotic labors of CecU J. Rhodes 
(1853-1902), who devoted his life to furthering the interests of his mother country 
in Africa. He left a fortune, acquired in the South African diamond mines, to 
found the Rhodes scholarships at Oxford University, enabling young men from 
various countries, including the United States, to pursue advanced studies in 

England. 



the fact that General Botha, one of the leading Boer commanders 
in the last Boer W^ar, became the first premier of the new federal 
government in South Africa. 

528. Egypt and Other African Territories. — For a long 
period Egypt was a nominal possession of Turke}^ though the sul- 
tan of-Turkej' had little or no control over the khedive (ke-dev') of 
Eg3'pt. The people were burdened with grinding taxes, but the 
reckless khedive, Ismail (is-ma-el'), could not keep his expenses 
within his income. He sold his interest in the Suez Canal (sec. 
516). He borrowed money on all sides until, in 1875, his coun- 
try was bankrupt, with a debt of nearly half a billion dollars. 
Thereupon France and Great Britain stepped in to protect their 
interests, each sending a fleet to Alexandria. 



6oo The Progress of Democracy 

At length the Egyptians showed resentment. France with- 
drew, but Great Britain quelled the uprising and took control of 
the country (1882). The British government then announced 
that it would withdraw from Egypt as soon as the condition of the 
country would permit ; but the time never came. During the 
World War (1914-1918) the British increased their authority and 
announced a full protectorate over Egypt. The khedive, who was 
planning war on the British, was deposed and a native sultan was 
put at the head of the Egyptian government. 

Not for hundreds of years have the Egyptians been so prosperous 
as since the British took control of their country. The system 
of taxation has been reformed and the people have been convinced 
that their rights will be respected.^ 

In addition to South Africa and Egypt, Great Britain had by 
1914 acquired several other extensive possessions in the Dark 
Continent. Most of these are " protectorates " or " spheres of 
influence." Among them the most important are the Anglo- 
Egyptian Sudan', comprising the upper basin of the Nile ; British 
East Africa, south of the Sudan; Rhodesia (ro-de'zhi-a), which 
lies north of the Transvaal; Somaliland (s6-ma'lg-land), east 
of Abyssin'ia ; and Nigeria (ni-je'ri-a), on the western coast. 

One of the most important world facts in recent modern history 
is the parceling out and occupation of the great continent of 
Africa by the European powers (map facing p. 581). Only two 
spots — Abyssinia on the east and Liberia on the west — are 
still independent of European control. 

529. The Dominion of Canada. — The most important of all 
British colonial possessions is Canada. After winning from the 
French the great valley of the St. Lawrence (sec. 370) Great Brit- 
ain set about establishing her government over the whole terri- 
tory. The statesman who won Canada for Great Britain was 
William Pitt, and it was his son, William Pitt the younger, who 

1 A native Egyptian said to the writer that when the British took control the 
people were so astonished that they were no longer to be ground down and exploited 
as usual that it took some years for them to realize the truth. 



The British Colonial Empire 



6oi 



in 1 79 1 divided the country into Upper and Lower Canada (On- 
tario and Quebec) and gave to each a governor, a council, and an 
elected assembly. Just fifty years later (1841) the two Canadas 
were reunited with a single bicameral parliament. 




Canadian Senate Chamber, Ottawa 

The new parliament building, completed in 1920, takes the place of the former struc- 
ture which was destroyed by fire in 1916. The parliament, which includes French 
as well as English speaking members, is addressed in both languages. 

The greatest year in the history of Canada was 1867. In that 
year the British Parliament in London passed the British North 
America Act creating the Dominion of Canada. The act dis- 
played a fine confidence in the allegiance and good will of the 
Canadians. George III had tried to keep the American colonies 
apart. The act of 1867 had its origin in the eiforts of several 
Canadian leaders who had been trying to bring about a federal 
union. At first the dominion was composed of but four prov- 
inces — Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. 
Manitoba joined the union in 1870, British Columbia the follow- 
ing year, and other provinces since then. Newfoundland refused 
to join and still remains outside the dominion. 

The government of Canada resembles those of Australia and 

EL. M. T. — 39 



6o2 The Progress of Democracy 

South Africa, which we have already noticed ; they were copied 
from it, to some extent. The governor-general, sent out from 
Great Britain, has as little power as the king of Great Britain. 
Parliament consists of two houses, a Senate whose members are 
appointed by the Dominion government for life, and a House of 
Commons, elected by the people for five years, unless sooner dis- 
solved. The leader of the majority party in the House of Com- 
mons becomes the premier, who, with his cabinet, exercises 
about the same power as the premier and cabinet in Great 
Britain. Each of the provinces has its own local government, 
with less power, however, than that of our states. 

IV. Close of the Victorian Era; Later Events 

530. Victoria, Edward VII, George V. — The reign of Queen Vic- 
toria (1837- 1 901) was the longest in European history except those 
of Louis XIV of France and Francis Joseph of Austria. It was a 
period of wonderful progress in literature, in science, and in in- 
dustrial growth, and above all in commerce. The Scotch writers 
Bums and Scott belong to an earlier period, but the Victorian 
Age includes the English poets Browning and Tennyson, the 
novelists Dickens and Thackeray, and the scientist Charles Dar- 
win, who propounded the theory of evolution. 

The queen was not, like Queen Elizabeth, a woman of strong 
intellect, nor did she make any pretense of interfering with parlia- 
mentary government. In 1840 Victoria was married to her 
cousin Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. He was a man of wisdom 
and prudence who exerted much influence in the government. 
In 1887 was celebrated the queen's " golden jubilee," marking 
the fiftieth year of her reign, and ten years later her " diamond 
jubilee " marked the sixtieth year. These celebrations with 
their gorgeous pageants indicated the popularity of the monarchy 
and a pride of empire as nothing had ever done. 

Queen Victoria, though not a statesman, was a woman of 
superior common sense and of unblemished character. She was 



British Labor Legislation 603 

greatly loved by her people and was regarded by the whole world 
as a model of high-type womanhood. On her death she was suc- 
ceeded by her eldest son, Edward VII (1901-1910), a man of sixty 
years. The new king was noted for his good manners and fine 
culture. He made various tours on the Continent, visiting his 
fellow-sovereigns, and his success in promoting friendly relations 
with neighboring nations led his people to call him "Edward the 
Peacemaker." On his death he was succeeded by his eldest living 
son, George V. 

531. Labor Legislation; Old Age Pensions. — From 1905 to 
1914 the Liberal party was in power.^ The party enacted some 
important labor laws, socialistic in their tendencies. The two 
most important of these are the Workingman's Compensation 
Act of 1906, and the National Insurance Act of 191 1. 

Before the law of 1906 was enacted a workman injured while 
at work could recover damages only by a suit at law, too expen- 
sive for the majority to undertake. The new law made the em- 
ployer responsible for accidents to the workman, except in cases of 
willful misconduct. Laws similar to this are found in many of 
our American states, as well as in British self-governing colonies. 

The National Insurance Act provided compensation for work- 
men in time of disability and provided also for the prevention and 
cure of sickness. Wage earners receiving less than a certain 
amount were required to insure under this law. It was optional 
with others who had greater incomes. The funds were contrib- 
uted partly by the state and partly by the employer and the 
workman. This act also attempted to insure against unemploy- 
ment in certain trades, but in this feature it has not been wholly 
successful. 

The Old Age Pension Law of 1909 is another of these paternal 
enactments intended to improve the condition of the poor. It 

1 The Conservatives won the election of 1895 and held power for ten years, the 
premiers being the Marquis of Salisbury (for the third time) and Mr. Arthur' Balfour. 
The Liberal premiers after their return to power in 1905 were Sir Henry Campbell- 
Bannerman, and, after his death in 1908, Herbert Henry Asquith, who was succeeded 
in 1917 by David Lloyd George. 



6o4 The Progress of Democracy 

provided that a man or woman having passed the age of seventy 
and having been a British subject for twenty years and a resident 
of Great Britain for twelve years might receive a pension from 
government funds, provided his income was less than 31 i pounds 
($153) a year. The sum received as pension was very small, 
but was enough to keep the aged poor from starvation, and the 
law is one of the best enacted in recent years in any country. 

532. Lloyd George and the Budget of 1909. — In the Asquith 
cabinet David Lloyd George, a Welshman of great ability, was the 
secretary of the treasury, called in Great Britain the Chancellor of 
the Exchequer. Once a year this official sets forth to the House 
of Commons a " budget," in which he estimates the expenditures 
for the coming year and proposes the means by which the taxes 
are to be raised. 

Owing to increases in the navy and to the old age pensions it 
was necessary to increase the revenue by a large amount. In 
his budget of 1909, therefore, Lloyd George proposed that the 
extra money be raised in such ways as to place the burden on the 
rich and not on the poor. It provided for a great increase in the 
income and inheritance taxes. One of his items, that which caused 
fiercest opposition, was a provision that twenty per cent of the 
increase of land values through the growth of the community 
must be paid to the government as tax. The bill awakened 
violent opposition in the House of Lords, the great majority of 
whose members were landowners on a large scale. 

Many years had passed since the Lords had ventured to veto 
a budget sent up from the Commons. After its humiliating de- 
feat in the reform of Parliament in 1832, the upper house, eclipsed 
by the Commons, remained in the background for sixty years. 
Then it ventured forth and defeated Gladstone's Home Rule 
Bill (sec. 521), the first measure of importance it dared to veto 
in more than half a century. Being sustained by the people in 
the next election, the Lords were emboldened to veto other 
measures (two education bills and others) and they seemed to 
have persuaded themselves that they were nearly if not fully as 



The British Parliament 605 

important in the government as the Commons. The House of 
Lords now ventured on a very serious step. It vetoed Lloyd 
George's budget, and in so doing it unwittingly prepared the way 
for its own downfall. 

533. Criticism of the House of Lords. — The defeat of the 
Lloyd George budget by the upper house brought a new election 
in 1910. The Liberals again won and the budget was then ac- 
cepted and passed by the Lords. But there were two other lead- 
ing issues in this campaign. One was the Irish Home Rule 
question already noticed (sec. 522), and the other was a demand 
for reform of the House of Lords, a " mending or ending " of 
that august body of medieval dignitaries. 

The British people are wonderfully lenient with their landed 
aristocracy, even fond of the system of caste, it may be said. 
" Every Englishman beneath the throne," said one of the nobility, 
" is a born lackey." From the great duke down to the lowest 
menial they are quite ready always to " bow to their betters." 
But while the upper classes hold the same position socially that 
they held in the Middle Ages, they have lost their power over the 
government. A few hundred years ago the sovereign controlled 
the government ; but he was gradually forced to yield his power 
to the aristocracy, and the aristocracy in turn has been obliged 
to yield to the masses of the people. 

In 1832 the Lords received a serious setback, but legally and 
theoretically they were still equal to the Commons, though in 
practice they were not. The people would not perhaps have ob- 
jected to the continuance of this condition but for the twofold 
fact that the upper house was extremely nonprogressive and that 
it steadily acted with the Tory or Conservative party. In the 
last half century it had opposed the education bills, the abolition 
of the purchase of army offices, Irish Home Rule, and old age 
pensions. The last straw was the defeating of the Lloyd George 
budget. The issue was simple : Shall the laws of the land be 
dictated by an hereditary body representing 600 families, or by 
an elected body that represents 40,000,000 people? 




6o6 



The British Parliament 607 

534. Parliament Act of 191 1. — The Lords took alarm at the 
measure proposed by the Liberals, and sought to checkmate it 
by reforming their own house to make it more liberal. But 
Premier Asquith was inflexible. He secured the consent of the 
king to create new peers enough to force the passage of the bill if 
necessary through the upper house. The Lords yielded without 
the use of this extreme measure, and the Parliament Bill became . 
a law in August, 191 1. 

This act took from the House of Lords all power to veto a money 
bill. Any other bill may become a law also without the consent of 
the Lords if it is passed at three successive sessions of the Commons 
and if a period of two years has elapsed since it was introduced. 

The Parliament Act of 191 1 thus reduced the House of Lords 
to an advisory body and a temporary check on the House of 
Commons, now clearly the sovereign governing body of the United 
Kingdom. 1 It took away from the upper house the prestige and 
power it had enjoyed since the fourteenth century and constituted 
the most important change of modern times in the British con- 
stitution. 

By the same act the life of a Parliament was reduced from seven 
to five years, and it was provided that members of the Commons 
should be paid a salary of 400 pounds a year. Hitherto they had 
served without pay. 

Questions and Topics. — I. What was the great life work of Sir 
Robert Peel? What were the corn laws and why were they repealed? 
Give an account of the early life of Gladstone and of Disraeli. What 
was the condition of the British educational system before the school 
law of 1870 was passed? What other reforms came that year and the 

1 In the picture on the opposite page Lloyd George can be seen standing at 
his desk addressing the House. Opposite him sits Mr. Asquith, leader of the 
Liberals. Lady Astor, an American by birth and the first woman member, is seated 
at the end of the second bench on the right. The Speaker of the House sits on the 
raised dais in the center of the hall, in wig and gown. In front of the Speaker is 
the clerks' table, on which the mace always lies when Parliament is in session. This 
symbol of authority was made in 1649, altered in 1660, and has been in use in the 
House ever since. Though the total number of members may be 707, there are seats 
on the floor for only 476. 



6o8 The Progress of Democracy 

next? Write a brief essay on the Suez Canal. Why did the Congress 
of Berlin curb Russia? Describe the reforms in Parliament in 1867 
and 1884. 

II. How did Ireland come to be subject to Great Britain? Write 
a brief paper on the Irish land question ; on Mr. Gladstone and Home 
Rule. Do you think Ireland would be better off if independent of Great 
Britain? What is the latest phase of Home Rule? Why have the 
people of Ulster opposed it? 

III. Tell of the extent of the British Empire in 1Q14. In what way 
has Great Britain been a civilizer? What is her colonial policy with 
regard to taxation? What can you tell of British India? of Australia 
and New Zealand? When and of whom did the British purchase Cape 
Colony? How did they secure other parts of South Africa? Describe 
the founding of the Union of South Africa. What does 1867 mean in 
Canadian history? Describe the government of Canada. 

IV. What labor laws has Great Britain recently enacted? Describe 
the Old Age Pension Law. What do you think of Lloyd George's tax 
measures? Why was it desirable to degrade the House of Lords? 
What is the present power of the House of Commons? 

Important Dates. — Great Indian Mutiny, 1857. Purchase of the 
Suez Canal, 1875. Discovery of gold in Australia, 1851. Commonwealth 
of Australia formed, January i, 1901. The Boer War, 1899-1902. 
Formation of the Union of South Africa, 1909. Egypt comes under 
British control, 1882. Dominion of Canada created, 1867. Degrading 
of the House of Lords, 191 1. 

For Ftirther Reading. — Several good histories of England should be 
in every high school library. Ransome's Advanced History of England 
from the Earliest Times to the Present Day (191 1) is interestingly written. 
Cross's History of England and Great Britain is more scholarly but less 
readable than Ransome's. It deals with the great questions of the 
present century, bringing the narrative down to 1914. Cheyney's 
Introdtiction to the Industrial and Social History of England furnishes 
a very excellent brief account of the industrial and social side of English 
history. See also Denning, Mosaics from India ; Jose, The Growth of the 
Empire ; Keltie, Africa, 



CHAPTER XLIII 
RUSSIA AND THE BALKANS 

I. Russia, the Leading Slav Nation 

535, Russian Expansion. — Next to the Teutonic peoples who 
occupy most of western Europe, the Slavic peoples must be ranked 
as the largest subdivision of the Indo-European family (sec. 12). 
The great Slav nation is Russia ; but there are many millions of 
non-Slav peoples in the Russian dominions (Tartars, Jews, and 
others) and there are many Slavs outside of Russia (Serbs, Bo- 
hemians, Poles, and others). 

After the time of Peter the Great (sec. 362) Russia expanded 
steadily in various directions. Peter acquired the Baltic provinces 
and Catherine II the greater part of Poland. The regions north 
and east of the Black Sea and east of the Caspian Sea were won 
by means of long wars. Siberia was won by Russia from savage 
Tartar tribes in the seventeenth century. It is larger than Europe, 
comprising all of northern Asia from the Ural Mountains to the 
Bering Sea, and from the Amur River to the Arctic Ocean. Si- 
beria contains mineral wealth of unknown value. In its western 
and southern parts are extensive timber and grazing and farming 
tracts, but in the far north the winters are so severe as to make 
the country scarcely habitable. The completion of the Siberian 
Railway, 5000 miles in length, gave Russia an outlet to the Pacific 
Ocean and greatly facilitated the colonization of Siberia. For many 
years a great object of Russia was to secure control of Constanti- 
nople and the outlet of the Black Sea, but through the jealousy 
of other nations, especially England, she was not able to do so. 

The area of the Russian Empire in 1914 was about 8,700,000 
square miles. It rivaled the British Empire in extent and was 
far more compact. The population was 175,000,000, about 

609 



6io The Progress of Democracy 

two thirds of whom were Russian Slavs and about five sixths 
of whom hved in Europe. 

536. The Government and the Bureaucracy. — Russia before 
1905 was an absolute monarchy. There was no lawmaking body ; 
the will of the tsar was the law of the land. 




Terminal of the Siberian Railway, Vladivostok 

The Siberian railroad was built by the government (1891-1905) with money raised 
chiefly by issuing bonds to foreign investors 



But it must not be inferred that the tsar governed arbitrarily 
all parts of the mighty empire. He was by no means free ; he 
was greatly dependent on the bureaucracy, an immense govern- 
mental machine with its 400,000 officials or bureaucrats. This 
army of officials, recruited chiefly from the nobility and holding 
office for life, kept running the colossal machinery of the empire, 
and their will rriay be said to have constituted a sort of public 
opinion of Russia. Against the will of this class the tsar had little 



Russia, the Leading Slav Nation 6ii 

power to prevail, and his usual course was to act in harmony with 
it. The bureaucrats were haughty and harsh in their attitude 
toward the common people. Jews, Poles, and other classes were 
excluded from their ranks. 

537. The Tsars of the Last Century. — Tsar Nicholas I (1825- 
1855) who ruled his people with a rod of iron, was followed by 
his son, Alexander II (1855-1881), a man of different tempera- 
ment. Alexander was humane ;' he felt deeply for the miserable 
serfs, of whom there were more than forty million in his dominions. 
In 1 86 1 he issued his famous decree (ukase) emancipating the 
serfs from their bondage. This was one of the greatest events in 
the history of Russia. The Russian serfs numbered about ten 
times as' many as the slaves freed by our Civil War. 

By this decree of the tsar the serfs were permitted to buy their 
lands from the landlords with money advanced in long-time loans 
by the government, or to pay an annual rent. The majorit}^ 
bought not as individuals, but as villages. Alexander had hoped 
that this act would bring prosperity and happiness to the down- 
trodden serfs, but such a result was not fully realized. One reason 
is that they were obliged to pay their greedy landlords much more 
for their land than it was worth, and another is that they were 
not permitted to buy enough land to support themselves. They 
were obliged therefore to rent, on the hardest terms, lands remain- 
ing to their former masters. Moreover, the taxes were excessive, 
and as one writer put it, " Life in a Russian village is slow death 
of creatures incessantly hungry." 

Alexander II not only emancipated the serfs, he also introduced 
local assemblies in the provinces, established a jury system, and 
granted more freedom to the press than it had ever enjoyed before. 
But with all his liberalism there was a> radical, vicious element 
that he could not please. This element formed a secret society 
called Nihihsts, who assassinated the tsar on the very day before 
he intended to grant a constitution to Russia. The crime was 
one to be compared with the assassination of Julius Caesar or of 
Abraham Lincoln. 



6i2 The Progress of Democracy 

The next tsar, Alexander III (1881-1894) reverted to the ilUberal 
policy of his grandfather Nicholas and destroyed much of the good 
that his father had accomplished. The last of the tsars, Nicholas 
II (1894- 191 7), followed the repressive policy of his father, Alex- 
ander III, for ten years or more after ascending the throne, but 
later became somewhat more liberal. 

538. The Russian Peasant. — The great majority of the 
Russian people are of the peasant class, but so great is the extent 
of the country that the manner of life in one section is often wholly 
unlike that of some far distant section. All Russia is often spoken 
of as two distinct worlds — New Russia, comprising the cities 
and larger towns with their veneer of western civilization, and 
their affected urbanity ; and Old Russia, which, in spite of the 
influence of Peter the Great, is still Asiatic in many of its ways. 

To the second class, the Old Russians, the great majority of the 
peasants belong. Millions of them in 19 14 had never seen a 
railroad or a city. Few of them could read and write. They 
cultivated their little farms in a crude and primitive fashion and 
while many of them could raise more than they needed for their 
own use, the want of railroads made it very difficult for them to 
find a market for their surplus products. The result was that 
they found it almost impossible to pay their taxes. 

The peasants lived in wooden houses, which had to be renewed 
every fifty or sixty years ; ancient landmarks like the stone castles 
of western Europe are unknown. The position of woman in the 
home was too often not what it should be. If the husband beat 
his wife the neighbors said he was teaching her to respect him. In 
some parts of Russia were still found " great families," that is, 
assemblies of several related families under one roof. The oldest 
man in a great family had control of the labor and the goods of 
all the rest and represented them at the rural assembly. 

There were many large estates in Russia, and on each one might 
be found one or more flour mills. To these the peasants came 
from far and near with their grain and paid for the grinding with 
toll of the finished product. Steam and gasoline engines were 



Russia, the Leading Slav Nation 



613 



unknown in large sections of the country and httle water power 
was available, owing to the flatness of the land. The flour mills 
were turned by windmills, which form a striking feature of the 
landscape. Many a large landholder who spent half the year in 
the capital went back to his estate to spend the summer among the 
peasants, donning the peasant garb and living and working as one 




Cossacks of Southern Russia 

The Cossacks, " a free, wild people, accustomed to live in the saddle," are of mixed 
race. They number about 3,000,000. Many served as cavalrymen in the tsar's 

army. 

of them. This he did not because of necessity but because of 
a love for the country life of Old Russia, the life of his ancestors. 
539. Russo-Japanese Rivalry. — One of the great wars of 
modern times, in magnitude and in results, was that between 
Russia and Japan, 1 904-1 905. The quarrel that brought it was a 
hundred years old. It arose from a steady encroachment of 
Russia on the Far East, which inspired a dread in the Japanese 



6i4 



The Progress of Democracy 



that the mighty Slav empire meant to swallow their island king- 
dom. In 1798 Russia attempted to seize certain Japanese islands, 
and never thereafter were the Japanese free from fear of this 
" Wild Eagle of the North." 

Japan for ages had been a half-dormant nation. Like China it 
was a Mongolian land, proud and self-satisfied with its ancient civi- 
lization. In 1854 Commodore M. C. Perry, of the American navy, 




Conference between Perry and the Japanese Shogun 

From a drawing made by the official artist of the expedition. The negotiations 

brought about the opening of Japan to western civilization. The shogun was the 

military commander of Japan and represented the emperor. 



succeeded in making a treaty with Japan by which some of her 
ports were opened to foreign trade. This beginning was followed 
quickly by an awakening of the people of the " Land of the Rising 
Sun." The reformation of 1868 was a veritable revolution. 
Japan absorbed the best of modern civilization and rose to the 
position of a first-class power with a rapidity unknown before in 
history. Above all things Japan built up an army and a navy 
with an eye steadily fixed on the Russian menace. These were 



Russia and Japan 615 

tested in a short war v/ith China in 1 894-1 895, over rival claims on 
Kore'a. Japan won easily and exacted a large indemnity and the 
cession of Port Arthur and the island of Formosa from her huge 
Mongolian neighbor. 

But the European powers had their own designs, on China, and 
three of them, France, Germany, and Russia, jointly demanded 
that the Japanese give up Port Arthur. Japan could do nothing 
but comply, but she did so resentfully, and a few years later 
her resentment was heightened when Russia occupied Port 
Arthur as a terminus for her Siberian railway. A little later 
Russia occupied Manchuria, a great sparsely-settled province of 
northeastern China, and even threatened Korea, just across the 
narrow sea from Japan. The Japanese were now convinced that 
their very independence was menaced and they determined to 
grapple with their gigantic neighbor unless he was willing to 
withdraw from Manchuria. 

540. The Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905. — After long and 
fruitless negotiations the war began. It proved a surprise to 
the world. According to neutral opinion, Japan, with one six- 
tieth of the area of Russia and little more than one fourth of the 
population, had small chance of success. But the " little brown 
men " proved marvelous fighters. Moreover, Japan was almost 
as well prepared for war as Prussia had been in 1870, while the 
Russian army and navy were honeycombed with corruption and 
" graft." 

Two battles of great magnitude were fought on land — the 
battle of Liaoyang (le-ou'yang'), September, 1904, and the battle 
of Mukden (mook-den'), March, 1905. Both proved signal vic- 
tories for the Japanese. The battle of Mukden was one of the 
greatest in history. It covered fourteen days. O'yama was the 
Japanese commander. The Russians lost 100,000 men. Mean- 
time the Japanese after a siege of seven months had captured Port 
Arthur (January i, 1905) ; and in May, Admiral Togo defeated 
and annihilated the Russian fleet in a tremendous naval battle in 
the Sea of Japan. 



6i6 The Progress of Democracy 

From these deadly blows Russia could not recover, and both 
nations agreed to the suggestion of President Roosevelt of the 
United States to have a peace conference. 

The conference was held at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 
August, 1905. ^ The terms of peace provided that Japan continue 
her control of Korea, that she be given the southern half of 
Sakhalin (sa-Ka-lyen') Island, and that Russia cede to Japan 
her lease of the Liaotung (le-ou'to6ng') peninsula, which included 
Port Arthur, and more than 700 miles of the Port Arthur rail- 
road. Russia also agreed to evacuate Manchuria. 

The great importance of this war lies in the fact that it put a 
decided check on the movement of the European powers toward 
occupying and controlling the Far East as they had done in 
Africa. The war seems to have insured the independent future 
development of the yellow races of the East and it proved to the 
world that there is one non-Caucasian nation that must be ranked 
in the first class. 

541. Russianizing the Provinces. — Among the many non- 
Russian peoples within the Russian Empire, were the Poles of 
Poland, the Finns of Finland, and several peoples of the Baltic 
provinces. When these provinces were acquired the tsar entered 
into a solemn compact that they should not be disturbed in the 
use of their respective languages, their customs and religion. The 
compact was ruthlessly violated. About the middle of the 
nineteenth century the pohcy of Russianizing the non-Russian 
people was begun. 

A revolt in Poland in 1863 was followed by severe repressive 
measures. The Polish language was forbidden in schools and 
courts and the Russian language was substituted. The Roman 
Catholic religion to which the Poles adhered was harassed in every 
way. But in spite of all the repressive measures the Poles con- 
tinued to use their own language and remained true to their 
religion. 

The people of the Baltic provinces were Esthonians, Letts, and 
Lithuanians, with a few Germans and Poles and some Russians. 



The Russian Uprising of 1905 617 

Most of them were Protestants or Roman Catholics. Here 
also the Russian government, beginning in 1867, attempted to 
convert the people to the Greek church and to suppress the native 
languages. As the people included several different races, the 
Russian measures, often attended with inhuman violence, were 
more successful than in Poland, where the whole community was 
homogeneous. 

Finland is a great stretch of country north of Petrograd and 
east of the Gulf of Bothnia, noted for its incomparable granite. 
It formerly belonged to Sweden, but came into the possession of 
the Russian tsar in 1809. Practically all the people were Finns 
(seven eighths) and Swedes (one eighth). In 1850 a decree of the 
tsar made the use of the Russian language compulsory, but it 
was not enforced. The Finns are an industrious, intelligent 
people, and, except that they clung to their language and customs, 
they gave no cause for offense. But Tsar Nicholas in 1900 made 
a determined effort to Russianize the Finns. He suppressed their 
institutions and robbed them of their liberties. 
■ After the Russo-Japanese war, however, while Russia was in 
a weakened condition and in the throes of internal discord, the 
Finns seized the opportunity and demanded a restoration of 
their liberties. The tsar acceded to their demand and allowed 
the • Finns local self-government under a liberal constitution, 
giving men and women alike the right to vote and hold ofl&ce. 

542. The Russian Uprising of 1905. — The first decade of the, 
twentieth century witnessed a belated revolution in despotic Russia. 
It was only partly successful, but it was an entering wedge. 

The war with Japan revealed widespread corruption in Russian 
official life. It was found that high officials had stolen large sums 
of money intended to supply the army, and even goods sent to the 
Red Cross were openly sold in Moscow. Great numbers of Rus- 
sian people had long known the need of reform. While the war 
was in progress (November, 1904) a notable meeting of leading 
men was held at the Russian capital (Petrograd), then known 
as St. Petersburg. It urged reforms on the government that a 

EL. M. T. — 40 



6i8 The Progress of Democracy 

revolution might be averted, such reforms as freedom of speech 
and of the press, and equal civil rights. 

In January, 1905, a great crowd assembled unarmed in the 
streets of St. Petersburg for the purpose of carrying to the tsar a 
petition for reform. But the Cossacks — Russian cavalry — were 
ordered to fire on the helpless people and many were slain. This 
tragedy, exaggerated as the news spread, caused an agitation for 
reform so widespread and so threatening that the tsar yielded 
and agreed to summon a Duma (doo'ma), or national assembly. 
But when later he decreed that its duties would be only advisory 
and not legislative, and that workingmen and professional men 
were to be excluded from the ballot, the people again became 
excited. A general strike was the result. Nearly all the rail- 
roads of the empire were tied up, thousands of factories and stores 
were closed, cities were left in darkness, and the wheels of industry 
came to a standstill. 

On this account and because of the great number of assassina- 
tions of policemen and higher officials the tsar again yielded ; he 
issued somewhat more liberal election laws and promised the 
Duma some real power. 

The Duma elected was composed largely of radicals determined 
on revolutionary reforms. It set forth its views in an address to 
the throne, demanding among other things control over the execu- 
tive and a ministry responsible to itself. Russia was not ready for 
such an innovation and henceforth there was no harmony between 
the government and the newly-elected body. The Duma was dis- 
solved in July and a call was given out for a second Duma, which 
was to meet in the spring of 1907. 

The interval was a season of disorder and anarchy. Many 
uprisings throughout the land were put down in a sea of blood. 
The second Duma was as radical as the first. After an existence 
of a little more than three months it too was dissolved. The elec- 
tion laws were then so changed that the third Duma elected in 
1907, and the fourth, in 1912, were composed chiefly of great 
landholders who were in sympathy with the tsar. 



Turkey and the Balkans 619 

Thus Russia was in an unstable condition, ripe for revolution, 
when it entered the World War of 19 14, to be discussed in later 
chapters. 

II. Turkey and the Balkans 

543. Turkey in Europe. — The most significant fact in connec- 
tion with the Near East in the past three hundred years is the 
steady loss of Turkish territory and power in Europe. During 
the fifteenth century the " unspeakable Turk " overran and 
occupied a very large portion of southeastern Europe. Mace- 
donia, Greece, the great region of the Balkan Mountains and the 
lower Danube fell beneath the ravages of the Mohammedan 
hordes from Asia. Christian Europe was frightened. But after 
a fearful defeat at Vienna in 1529 and another on the sea at 
Lepanto in 1571 (sec. 275) the Turks were checked. In the 
eighteenth century they began to lose ground, and their power 
has steadily declined, and long ago they would have been driven 
from European soil but for the mutual jealousies of the great 
powers. 

The peoples subdued by the Turks or Ot' tomans (so called from 
the name of an early sultan) were chiefly Christians of the Ortho- 
dox Greek faith. For centuries they were subjected to the utmost 
cruelties, often being massacred by thousands by their fanatical 
masters. The massacres were accompanied by revolts and inter- 
ventions resulting usually in the curbing of Ottoman power. 

The Ottoman Empire was an absolute despotism, but in 1879 
a party known as " Young Turkey " rose against the government 
and demanded a constitution. They succeeded for a time in 
modifying the power of the sultan, but Abdul-Hamid (ab-do6l- 
ha-med') coming to the throne soon crushed every effort of the 
reformers and continued to rule the country with an iron hand. 
So it went on until 1909, when another uprising proved more suc- 
cessful. Abdul-Hamid was dethroned and sent into retirement 
and Turkey became a constitutional state. 

544. The Christian States of the Balkans. — When the Turks 
came into Europe they did not come in such numbers as to colonize 



620 



The Progress of Democracy 




Decline of Turkish Power from 1815 to 1912 

For decline prior to 1815 and after igi2 see maps facing page 317, following page 
432, on page 624, and following page 704. 



all the lands they conquered. Like the ancient Romans with their 
provinces, or the British in India, they held the native peoples in 
subjection and made no attempt to replace them. 

The chief races thus conquered by the Turks were the Greeks, 
the Roumanians north of the Danube, the Serbs in the northwest, 
the Bulgarians south of the Danube, and the Alba'nians in the 
west on the shore of the Adriatic. These peoples differed from 
one another in language and customs and had little in common 
except their religion. Many of the Albanians, however, and some 
Bulgarians and others were converted to Mohammedanism. 

Within the first half of the nineteenth century the Greeks 
regained their independence (sec. 441) and at the same time some 
measure of self-government was granted to Serbia and the Rou- 



Turkey and the Balkans 621 

manian provinces. A few years later the tsar of Russia proposed 
to Great Britain that the possessions of the sultan be divided 
up among the powers, referring to the sultan as " the sick man of 
Europe." It was known that Turkish rule was cruel and oppres- 
sive, but Great Britain had come to regard Russia with deep 
suspicion, as a menace to her Indian possessions. When, there- 
fore, Russia had a quarrel with Turkey, 1 854-1 856, Great Britain, 
joined by France and Sardinia, took the side of the Turks and 
prevented the disruption of the Ottoman Empire. This war is 
known as the Crimean War, having taken its name from the 
peninsula of Crimea in the Black Sea, where much of the fighting 
was done. This was the first European war since the fall of 
Napoleon at Waterloo. It brought meager results aside from 
giving a new lease of life to the Turkish power in Europe. 

545. Turkish Massacres ; Congress of Berlin. — What is 
known as the Eastern Question (what should be done with the 
Ottoman Empire) had long troubled Europe. The Turk was an 
intruder and a disturber among the nations of Europe. His 
rightful home was Asia. The fanatical religion of the Turks led 
them to kill non-Mohammedan people whenever possible and 
convenient to do so. They had promised, it is true, at the close 
of the Crimean War, ' to refrain from atrocities ; but their word 
was worthless. 

Goaded to revolt by their oppressors, the Serbs and Bulgarians 
made a dash for independence in 1875. This brought upon them 
the merciless vengeance of the fanatical Turks, and more than 
30,000, chiefly Bulgarians, were massacred and 12,000 women 
were dragged off into slavery. Europe stood aghast at this 
latest horror, but no nation except Russia lifted a finger to prevent 
it. 

In defense of the Balkan Christians Russia declared war on 
Turkey (1877) and within a year had won a brilliant victory. 
But the ensuing peace of San Stefano was, as we have seen, 
upset by the Congress of Berlin (sec. 516). The decisions of this 
congress are counted among the most shameful diplomatic pro- 



622 



The Progress of Democracy 




Painted Gateway e\ I'lioNT ut a Church in Roumania 

American Red Cross official photograph. The mud and stone gateway and the 
religious paintings on it are centuries old. 



ceedings in recent European history. The congress insured a 
new lease of Hfe to the Ottoman Empire and deliberately handed 
back to the mercy of the Turks large numbers of people that 
Russia had rescued. Bismarck presided at the congress, but 
its chief inspirer was Disraeli, the British premier.^ Its main 
provisions were as follows : 

1. It made Serbia and Roumania, which had enjoyed self- 
government before, independent kingdoms ; but the part of 
Roumania east of the Pruth River (southern Bessarabia, which 
had been ceded by Russia in 1856), was now ceded to Russia. 

2. Macedonia (which was to have been Bulgarian under the 
treaty of San Stefano) was passed back to Turkey. 

1 It must not be inferred that all the British people were deaf to the cries of distress 
from the Balkans. Gladstone denounced bitterly the attitude of his country on 
this matter, and his following was so great that he soon overthrew Disraeli and became 
premier. 



The Balkan Wars 623 

3. Eastern Roumelia, the southern portion of Bulgaria, was 
put under Turkish control, but was to have a Christian gov- 
ernor, while Bulgaria proper was given home rule but remained 
tributary to Turkey. This arrangement was soon defeated, 
however; the people of Eastern Roumelia revolted and joined 
Bulgaria, which became practically independent. 

4. The congress provided that Greece should secure Thessaly 
and a portion of Epirus, and this was accomplished a few years 
later. 

5. Bosnia (boz'ni-a) and Herzegovina (her-tse-go-ve'na), 
though they remained theoretically Turkish provinces, were 
turned over to Austria- Hungary to administer. In 1908, they 
were definitely annexed by that country. 

546. The Balkan Wars, 1912-1913. — The Congress of Berlin 
did not end the Turkish atrocities in the Balkan region. The 
minor states, despairing of protection from the Great Powers, 
determined, after ages of oppression, to take matters into their 
own hands. Carefully they marshaled their military strength 
and in 1912 the hour struck. Four of them — Serbia, Bulgaria, 
Greece, and Montenegro — declared war on Turkey with the 
purpose of driving the Turks out of Europe. 

The Turkish army was badly equipped. The allied armies 
marched into Macedonia and Thrace and won victory after victory 
with amazing speed. The following spring, Adrianople, the sacred 
Moslem city, was forced to surrender to a Bulgarian army, aided 
by Serbs. Even Constantinople was threatened, when the Great 
Powers intervened and brought about terms of peace. 

Austria had looked on with a greedy eye with the evident pur- 
pose of securing for herself a large part of the conquered territory ; 
but Germany and Great Britain vetoed her plans and thus no 
doubt averted a general European war. 

By the terms of peace, signed in London in May, 1913, Turkey 
was forced to give up all her territory in Europe except Con- 
stantinople and a limited adjacent territory. It was decided also 
that the disposal of the conquered lands should be determined 



624 



The Progress of Democracy 



by an international commission. But before the questions were 
settled the states that had conquered Turkey fell to quarreling 
among themselves. 

Bulgaria claimed, through an arrangement made before the war, 
the lion's share of the conquered Turkish lands. Had she had her 
way she would have become by far the strongest of the Balkan 
states. But the others would listen to no such proposal ; they 

proposed arbitration, 
but Bulgaria attacked 
them, and a fierce, 
bloody war was the re- 
sult. Even Roumania, 
which had not been in 
the war against Tur- 
key, now joined the 
others against Bul- 
garia, which was soon 
defeated and forced to 
sue for peace. 

In the treaty of Bu- 
charest, 191 3, Greece, 
Montenegro, Serbia, 
and Bulgaria made 
large gains in territory 
taken from Turkey; 
but Bulgaria was 
obliged to give to Rou- 
mania a small strip in the northeast. The jealousy of Austria 
prevented Serbia from securing a much needed port on the Adri- 
atic; instead, the new petty kingdom of Albania was erected. 
The power and extent of Turkey were greatly reduced, but the 
Turks were not driven out of Europe and were even permitted by 
the powers to retain some territory, including Adrianople, which 
they had stealthily recaptured while the Balkan states were fight- 
ing one another. 




The Balkan States at the End of 1913 



The Balkan Wars 625 

Side Talk 

The Mohammedans. — The fact that the Turks have made such a 
poor showing in Europe may be due in part to the non-cosmopolitan 
character of the Mohammedan rehgion. The teachings of Mohammed 
were adapted to the Arabian people of his time, but are not adapted to 
all climes and to modern life and progress. The result is that there 
is to-day no great Mohammedan country, and four fifths of the Mohara- 
medan people of our time live under Christian government. 

As late as 1875 good Mohammedans continued to paddle their little 
rowboats across the Bosporus, refusing to use the ferry steamers, for 
the reason, as they said, that " if the Prophet had intended true be- 
hevers to use steamboats, he would have mentioned them in the Koran." 

For many years after other cities were lighted by electricity Con- 
stantinople retained the gas jet. The reason was that the sultan, 
always afraid of being blown up, saw such a resemblance between the 
words " dynamite " and " dynamo " that he determined to be on the 
safe side'' by prohibiting both from his dominions. See Davis, Roots 
of the War, page 271. 

Questions and Topics. — I. Who are the Slav peoples? Describe 
the expansion and extent of the Russian Empire. What is meant by 
the Russian bureaucracy? Describe the emancipation of the serfs in 
1861. How do serfs differ from slaves? Who were the Nihilists? 
Describe the life of the Russian peasant. What was the cause of the 
dispute between Japan and Russia? Write an essay on the war between 
them. In what way did Russia attempt to Russianize the Poles, 
Baltic peoples, and Finns? Describe the Russian revolution in 1905. 
Was it successful? Have a people oppressed by their government a 
right to rise against it? Why? 

II. How do you account for the steady decline of the Turkish power 
in Europe during the past two hundred years? Describe the Turkish 
revolution of 1909. Why did the Balkan Christians rebel against Turk- 
ish rule? Why did Great Britain refuse to aid in protecting the Balkan 
Christians? Why are the decisions of the Congress of Berlin (1878) 
referred to as " shameful diplomatic proceedings " ? What peoples 
were united against Turkey in the Balkan War of 1912? What were 
their aims and their grievance? What were the results of the war? 

For Further Reading. — Alexinsky, Modern Russia. Graham, Russia 
and the World. Rambaud, Russia. 



CHAPTER XLIV 
THE MINOR STATES OF WESTERN EUROPE 

To complete the story of Europe down to the outbreak of the 
World War in 19 14, we must notice briefly the minor states of 
western Europe. The three peninsular countries farthest north, 
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, known as Scandinavia, lie 
between the Baltic and the North seas. Southwestward from 
these are the Netherlands (popularly called Holland), embracing 
the lower valley of the Rhine, and Belgium. The Ibe'rian Penin- 
sula comprises Spain and Portugal, and Switzerland occupies the 
lofty region of the Alps in the heart of Europe. 

Of these eight independent nations two, Switzerland and Portu- 
gal, are republics. All the rest are limited monarchies, each 
having a constitution and a legislature chosen by the people. 

I. Scandinavia 

547. Denmark. — About 1660 Denmark was changed from the 
feudal form of government into an absolute monarchy, and so 
continued for nearly two centuries. At the time of the third 
French Revolution, 1848, the king was induced to grant a consti- 
tution, but this was made far more liberal in 1866 and again in 1915. 
The legislature, consisting of two houses, is called the Rigsdag. 
Since 1 866 the country has lived at peace with all the world and the 
people have devoted their energies to home industry and culture. 

King Christian IX (1863-1906) did everything possible to en- 
hance the welfare of his people. Because one of his daughters 
married the future king of England (Edward VH) and another 
the future tsar of Russia (Alexander III) the Danish king was 
humorously called the father-in-law of Europe. 

626 



Scandinavia 627 

The Danes are a sturdy, industrious, and highly inteUigent 
people. Their greatest industries are farming and raising hogs, 
cattle, and poultry. Their shipments of eggs, bacon, and butter 
to England have a value of about a hundred million dollars a year. 
The farmers are instructed in excellent agricultural schools and 
more and more are adopting scientific methods. Danish farmers 
have adopted also a cooperative system on a large scale, by 
which most of the profits accrue, not to middlemen, but to the 
producers. 

548. Sweden and Norway. — Sweden and Norway comprise 
the great Scandinavian Peninsula jutting southward. They ex- 
tend from the parallel of 56° north latitude to a point far beyond 
the Arctic Circle. Norway reaches to>the shore of the Arctic 
Ocean, where the sun never rises in midwinter and never sets 
from the end of April till the middle of August. Sweden is a 
great plain sloping eastward from the mountains of Norway to the 
Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic Sea. Norway is a mighty plateau 
with majestic mountains and glaciers and deep valleys. It has 
a coast line of more than a thousand miles. ' It is the most thinly 
settled country in Europe. Its most important products are 
timber and fish. Sweden exports timber, dairy products, and 
minerals. 

The Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes are kindred peoples with 
kindred languages, belonging to the Teutonic branch of the Indo- 
European family. The people of all three countries, known in 
earlier centuries as Northmen, are hardy and strong. 

The school systems in Norway and Sweden, as in Denmark, 
are of the best, and are equipped with the best modern facilities 
for manual as well as mental training. The people are among 
the most highly educated and enlightened in Europe. The 
established religion is the Evangelical Lutheran, which is closely 
connected with the school system ; but all religions are free. 

About 1865 emigration on a large scale began and in the follow- 
ing half century more than a million Swedes and several hundred 
thousand Norwegians had left their native land, the greater pro- 



628 



The Progress of Democracy 



portion of them finding a home in the United States. They settled 
chiefly in the great wheat lands of the Northwest, where they have 
established a high standard of civilization and prosperity. In spite 
of this emigration both countries more than doubled in popula- 
tion during the hundred years prior to the World War. Sweden 
then boasted a population of about five and a half million and 
Norway of two and a half million. 




A Street in Stockholm, the Capital of Sweden 

At the left of the picture is the Royal Theater ; at the right, the harbor. Because 

of its beautiful situation, partly on islands, Stockholm is often called " the Venice 

of the North." It is the same far northern latitude as Juneau, Alaska. 

Each country has its king, and a bicameral legislature called 
the Storthing (stor'tmg) in Norway and the Riksdag in Sweden. 
In both countries woman suffrage has been adopted. The two 
nations were united under one king by the Congress of Vienna 
(sec. 435) but each had its own constitution and its own cabinet. 
The Norwegians, however, were not content to remain under the 
Swedish king. For many years there was much friction and in 



Scandinavia, Holland 629 

1905 Norway declared its independence of Sweden.^ War seemed 
imminent, but King Oscar II (i 872-1 907) won the applause of the 
world by nobly refusing to make war and permitting the Nor- 
wegians to depart in peace. Norway then chose as her king a 
younger son of the house of Denmark, a son-in-law of the king of 
Great Britain. He ascended the throne of Norway as Haakon VII. 

II. Holland and Belgium 

549. Holland (Kingdom of the Netherlands). — The people 
of Holland, as the Netherlands is usually called, are Teutonic; 
that is, they were one with the Germanic and Scandinavian 
peoples in the far past. Their struggles against the encroaching 
sea and against their oppressors (sec. 317) made them a brave 
people. There was a time when Holland was one of the great 
powers of Europe and the same is true of Sweden and of 
Spain. But the population and resources were not great enough 
to warrant the continuance of such a standard. From 1815 to 
1830 Belgium was annexed to Holland, but then secured its inde- 
pendence by revolution, as we have seen (sec. 471). 

The people of Holland, called the Dutch (a term often misused 
to designate the Germans), are highly intelligent. Their system 
of education is excellent, and school attendance is compulsory. 
In religion the great majority are of the Reformed faith, built on 
the teachings of Zwingli (sec. 291). The population in 1914 was 
about six million. 

Queen Wilhelmina (vil-hel-me'na), a descendant of William 
the Silent (sec. 319), succeeded to the throne in 1890 at the age of 
ten years and won the love of all her people. The legislative body 
is called the States General and, as in most countries, is divided 
into two houses. The ministry is responsible to the legislature 
rather than to the queen. 

Holland lost some of its colonial possessions in the Napoleonic 
wars, but many still remain. The Dutch West Indies are a 

' In a vote of the people on the question only one in two thousand voted to retain 
the union with Sweden. 



630 



The Progress of Democracy 



small colony. The Dutch East Indies comprise more than 700,000 
square miles and have a population of about forty million. 




I Underwood & Underwood 

Soaking Flax on a Belgian Farm 

Raising flax and manufacturing linens and linen laces are important industries of 
Belgium. The flax is gathered, tied in bundles, and piled in stacks such as appear 
in the background of the picture. The woody bark and stem of the fibers are rotted 
off by sinking them on rafts in running water. The straw is then pounded until 
only the fibers are left. It is from the fibers that linen is made. 

550. Belgium. — The people of Belgium, which lies between 
Holland and France and extends from the Rhine Valley to the 
North Sea, are mainly of two races, Walloons and Flemings, 
who speak, respectively, French and Flemish. The country is 
11,000 square miles in extent, and its population, before the 
beginning of the World War in 19 14, was nearly 8,000,000 ; hence 
it was the most densely populated country in Europe. 

In religion nearly all' the people are Roman Catholic. The 
public schools have been largely under the influence of the church. 
They are modern in their appointments, and illiteracy is decreas- 
ing ; but in education Belgium does not yet equal France, Ger- 
many, Holland, and the Scandinavian countries. 



Belgium, Spain 631 

The industrial interests of the Belgian cities are very extensive ; 
the coal, iron, and zinc deposits are of great value. Two thirds 
of the farms in Belgium average but five acres each, but the 
farming is so intensive that a very few acres will support a family. 

Belgium has the same constitution, with a few changes, that 
was adopted in 1831. The king acts through his ministers, and 
the ministers resign if they fail to retain the confidence of the two 
houses of parliament. In the elections there have been many 
contests between the Clerical party and the Liberals aided by the 
Socialists. In 1894 the Clericals won, and they retained control 
of affairs for twenty years. Until after the World War, Belgium 
had a system of plural voting, under which a man of education or 
wealth cast two or three votes instead of one. 

King Leopold I (i 831- 1865) was succeeded by his son, Leo- 
pold II (1865- 1 909), and he in turn by his nephew Albert, who 
won great fame in the World War. Leopold II acquired control 
of the Kongo Free State, a region in central Africa eighty times 
the size of Belgium. This great colony was a personal possession 
of the king, but in his will he bequeathed it to Belgium. 

III. Spain, Portugal, Switzerland 

551. Spain. — For half a century after the death of the treacher- 
ous and cruel Ferdinand VII in 1833, Spain was a scene of disorder 
and misrule. It was expected that the crown would pass to the 
king's brother Carlos, but Ferdinand in his will bequeathed it 
to his infant daughter Isabella, and the result was a civil war 
that lasted seven years. Isabella won in the contest, but her 
reign presents a dreary story of broken promises and revolutions. 
Utterly wanting in character and capacity, she was driven from 
the throne in 1868 by a popular uprising. 

For some years thereafter Spain cast about over Europe for a 
king, offering her crown to one prince after another. By offering 
it to a German prince she incidentally occasioned the Franco- 
Prussian War (sec. 493). An Italian prince accepted the crown, 
but soon threw it aside and left the country in disgust. In 1873 



632 



The Progress of Democracy 



a republic was set up, and Castelar', the president, proved an able 
man. He restored order and for a time ruled the country with a 
strong hand. Soon after his resignation Alfonso XII (1874- 
1885), grandson of Ferdinand VII, was called to the throne. He 
proved himself a prudent ruler, as did also his son, Alfonso XIII. 




Alfonso XIII and Queen Victoria oi'- Spain, with Wurkingmen 
Photograph taken after the king had helped to settle a strike. 

The legislative body, called the Cor'tes, is of two houses ; the 
senate is partly elected and partly appointed by the king, while 
the lower house is wholly elected by the people. Since the adop- 
tion of the constitution in 1876 the government has been far more 
stable than before, but the people are burdened with heavy taxes. 

Roman Catholicism is the state religion of Spain, and other 
forms of worship are tolerated only under certain restrictions and 
are not permitted in public. The school system is far inferior to 
those of the northern countries, and only 30 per cent of the people 
can read. The people, of whom there are over twenty million, 
are inclined to be indolent, and great numbers of them live in 
abject poverty. 



Spain, Portugal . 633 

Spain under Charles I and Philip II was a mighty world power 
and her colonial possessions were very great. But Spain could 
not shake off the shackles of the Middle Ages — even the Inquisi- 
tion was revived in the nineteenth century — and she fell far 
behind the modern procession of the nations. 

From the time of the defeat of the Armada in 1588 (sec. 310) 
Spain steadily declined. Her cup of humiliation was filled when 
three hur^red and ten years later she lost Cuba and the Phihp- 
pines in a short war with the United States. With the exception 
of a few small islands and a minor section of Africa her entire 
colonial empire of the past has melted away, and Spain to-day 
is rated as scarcely more than a third-class power. 

552. The Republic of Portugal. — When in 1807 Napoleon 
seized Portugal, King John VI fled to the Portuguese colony, Brazil. 
Here he decided to remain even after the fall of Napoleon, but the 
Portuguese were unwilling to be ruled from across the Atlantic. 
When the king therefore returned to Portugal, Brazil became inde- 
pendent, and chose John's son Pedro as its ruler.^ Portugal 
retains large possessions in Africa, also the Azores and Madeira 
Islands, but so badly are the African colonies managed that they 
have been a constant expense to the home treasury. 

The government of Portugal until the abolition of the monarchy 
was very similar to that of Spain — a limited monarchy with 
two houses of the Cortes. Education was even more backward 
than in Spain, about three fourths of the people being unable to 
read. 

Seldom in the past hundred years has Portugal enjoyed a wise 
and stable government. So poor was the management of the 
finances that in 1 893 the payment of interest on the public debt 
was in part suspended. A revolutionary party arose and de- 
manded reforms. They were not forthcoming and in 1908 the 
king was assassinated in the public square in Lisbon. His son 

1 The son of this ruler of Brazil, Pedro II, was the last monarch in the Western 
Hemisphere. He was emperor of Brazil from 1831 to 1889, when he abdicated 
because his people declared a republic. 
EL. M. T. — ^41 



634 



The Progress of Democracy 



Eman'uel (Manoel) succeeded him, but two years later he was 
driven from the country and Portugal became a republic. Bravely 
since then has the little republic struggled against ignorance, 
poverty, and disorder to maintain its existence. 

553. The Swiss Republic. — The geographical heart of Europe 
is Switzerland. It embraces the central region of the Alps, 
including all the loftiest peaks of that mountain system, except 
Mt. Blanc (moN blaN) and a few neighboring peaks. Here in the 
Swiss glaciers rise several great rivers — the Rhine flowing to the 
North Sea, the Rhone which reaches the Mediterranean through 




Bridge 'across the Rhone at Geneva, Switzerland 

The city lies at the end of Lake Geneva, whose outlet is the Rhone River. Geneva 

is noted for its watch making, an industry that was started as long ago as 1587. 

This city has been chosen as the seat of the League of Nations. 

France, and the Inn whose waters flow into the Black Sea by 
way of the Danube. Switzerland has an area of nearly 16,000 
sqtiare miles (one third the size of New York) and is the home of 
about four million people. 



Switzerland 635 

Of the twenty-two Swiss cantons thirteen are German in speech, 
four are French, four are mixed and one is Itahan. All three are 
official languages. Many of the people are Roman Catholics, but 
more than half are Protestants. The school system is of the 
best and education is compulsory. Though hopelessly divided 
in language and religion and separated by mountain barriers, there 
are no mdre patriotic people in the world than the Swiss. 

The Swiss do not maintain a standing army, but military train- 
ing is compulsory. Young men are required, without giving up 
their regular occupation, to spend several weeks each summer 
for some years in a training camp. It is estimated that half a 
million trained riflemen could be mobilized within a very short 
time. 

The government of Switzerland is the most democratic in the 
world. It was the original modern republic of Europe. In 1848 
a liberal constitution was adopted and with some changes is still 
in force. Each canton, like our states, has its own constitution 
and government. The Federal Assembly is like our Congress. 
As with us, the upper house is composed of two delegates from 
each state or canton, while in the lower house the representation 
is based on population. 

The executive is composed of a committee of seven men elected 
by the Federal Assembly. The chairman of this committee, 
chosen for one year, is often spoken of as the president of Switzer- 
land, but he has little more power than his colleagues. 

The initiative and referendum have reached their greatest 
development in Switzerland, the former being a purely Swiss 
creation. By the- initiative a certain number of people may 
propose a law, which may then be passed by a vote of the people 
without action of the legislature. By the referendum a law passed 
by the legislature may be subjected to a vote of the people, whose 
decision is final. The referendum has long been in use in our 
country with respect to state constitutions, and both the initiative 
and the referendum have been adopted in some of our states with 
respect to laws also. 



636 The Progress of Democracy 

Side Talk 

South America. — Perhaps in the far-away future the Spaniards and 
Portuguese will be remembered more for their offspring in the New 
World than for anything else. It is a remarkable fact that there are 
several times as many Spanish-speaking nations to-day as any other 
language can boast. These include Mexico, the little countries of 
Central America, and all the South American republics except Brazil. 

It is more than probable that the time will come when South America 
will be one of the great centers of civilization. Already one of the 
Spanish South American countries, Argentina, gives promise of be- 
coming a first-class power; and the same is true of Brazil, an offspring 
of Portugal, one of the least important of the European states. Argen- 
tina is far enough south of the equator to enjoy a temperate climate. 
The country is about one third the size of the United States and has a 
population above eight million. The capital city, Buenos Aires, is 
nearing the two million mark and is one of the great cities of the world. 

Brazil has an area greater than that of the United States and a popu- 
lation about three times that of Argentina. A close third among the 
South American countries is Chile, a little larger than Texas, with about 
four million inhabitants and extending along the western coast for 
2600 miles. 

Questions and Topics. — I. When did Denmark adopt its present con- 
stitution? What kind of king was Christian IX? What are the chief 
industries of the Danes? Describe the Scandinavian peninsula. When 
and why did Norway and Sweden separate ? How do the people of these 
countries compare with the people of Italy and Spain? 

II. Why is the Netherlands called Holland? Who are the Dutch royal 
family? How do the Dutch differ from the Belgians? 

III. What can you tell of the ruling family of Spain? How are the 
legislative houses chosen? Of what early races are the Spaniards and 
Portuguese descendants ? When and how did Portugal become a republic ? 
Who are the Swiss? How do they govern themselves? What languages 
are used in Switzerland? 

For Further Reading. — Books listed in the preceding chapters or other 
histories of Modern Europe. 



' CHAPTER XLV 

ADVANCES IN GOVERNMENT, SCIENCE, AND INDUSTRY 

I. A Century of Revolution 

554. Decline of Monarchy. — In the world's history the mo- 
narchial form of government has always been more common than 
self-government of the people. This is because men are created 
so unequal in capacity for leadership. A born leader gets control 
of military and state affairs with the willing consent of the masses 
who feel the need of real leadership. He then organizes the gov- 
ernment into a system so that his son, possibly a weakling in com- 
parison, may retain the power. Thus we have the origin of the 
monarchy. The dawn of history reveals monarchial forms of 
government only. 

The fatal weakness of a monarchy lies in the fact that a dullard, 
an imbecile, or a tyrant may inherit the throne. The magistrate 
in a republic must be a man of capacity. He has risen from the 
multitude, having gone through the sifting process many times, 
beginning in childhood. The weakest of our American presidents 
were men of capacity far above the average man, and. it may be 
added, far above the average monarch. 

The monarchy was the almost universal form of human govern- 
ment until recent times. But in.1914 there were very few abso- 
lute monarchies in the civilized world. Many countries were 
republics ; others had limited the power of the hereditary ruler, 
as in most European countries, or, as in England, had taken the 
power wholly away from him. In only a few, as Russia, Ger- 
many, and Japan, did the monarch retain large governing powers. 
Why this world revolution in government ? 

The answer is not far to seek. The invention of printing, the 

637 



638 The Progress of Democracy 

Renaissance, the Reformation, and other causes greatly raised the 
standard of intelhgence among the people, and in consequence 
they became conscious of their own powers and rights and refused 
longer to be exploited by their rulers. In most countries they have 
recognized the needlessness of submitting to the tyranny of a man 
who chances to inherit a throne and have come forward and de- 
manded the right to manage their own affairs in whole or in part. 
The result has been the overturning of thrones and the banishing, 
or greatly curtailing the power, of royal families. In all the civilized 
world in 19 14 the rulers were few indeed who could make a law or 
lay a dollar of taxation on the people without the consent of the 
people's representatives. 

The greatest fact in modern history consists, not in the dis- 
coveries of science, nor in the invention of machinery, not even in 
the development of our own great republic, but in the" mighty 
wave of constitutional, representative democracy that has swept 
over Europe. In this chapter we are considering this movement 
as it had progressed to 1914; but one of the chief results of the 
World War was the further spread of democracy. 

The movement toward democracy has been of vast consequence. 
It has emancipated the common man and recognized his right to 
self -ownership. It has given him a chance to make the best of 
himself. Under the old regime the energies of the common man 
were spent in paying his burdensome taxes and in serving his 
masters. To-day in nearly every civilized land he can come and 
go as he will, he can worship God in his own way, and can engage 
in any occupation, not for a master, but for himself, and he can 
prevent the enactment of oppressive laws by helping to make 
the laws. This political emancipation, this releasing of the indi- 
vidual from the fetters that bound him, has counted much for 
progress in other lines, for the opening of the door of opportunity 
to the millions vastly extends the field for the rise of geniuses and 
leaders. 

555. A Review of the Century of Revolution. — The pioneer 
in this great modern world-movement was the United States of 



Advances in Government 639 

America.' It is true that the American colonies were never op- 
pressed as were the people of Europe, but their successful revolt 
against unjust taxation resulted in the setting up of the first 
important; self-governing nation of modern times. 

Hard upon the American Revolution followed the French Revo- 
lution in 1789. Its results in France were very far-reaching, as 
noted in earlier chapters, but they did not extend far beyond the 
boundaries of France. The masses of the people needed further 
schooling as to their rights and their power of securing them. 

Again in 1830, still again in 1848, and finally in 1871, France 
made great advances and has finally reached a nearly ideal state 
of human liberty and equality. No more typical picture of great 
results of the revolutionary era can be found than in France. 
The French peasant of to-day is one of the freest and thriftiest 
and happiest creatures in the world, owning and cultivating his 
little eight-acre farm, the same on which his ancestors toiled and 
sweat blood in the service of their heartless masters. 

Meantime other peoples were slowly catching the American- 
French spirit, were awakening to a sense of their rights. One by 
one they demanded of their respective rulers more liberal treat- 
ment, and this when granted was embodied in a constitution 
which guaranteed the rights of the people and set a limit to the 
power of the sovereign. 

As early as 1820 a few of the smaller German states (Baden, 
Wiirttemberg, Hesse) gained constitutions. Then came a decade 
of reaction, but the spirit of freedom burst forth again, resulting 
in the independence of Greece, the driving of the last of the Bour- 
bons from France, and the granting of constitutions to Belgium, 
Saxony, Hanover, and Brunswick. Much had now been won, 
but not enough, and in 1848 another flaring up for freedom spread 
over Europe like a conflagration. In this instance even Austria, 

1 it is true that the British nation and a few others, as Holland and Switzerland, 
had been moving in the direction of self-government for several himdred years, but 
their movement was an evolution rather than a revolution, and moreover Great 
Britain did not secure a government by the people before 1832. 



640 The Progress of Democracy- 

wrung from the iron grasp of Metternich, gained a constitution, 
and the same year witnessed a like liberal move in Denmark, 
Holland, and Sardinia. 

In i860 Italy was rescued by the great Cavour from a grinding 
thralldom. Most of the countries of Europe were now swept 
clean of tyrannical government. Only Turkey and Russia re- 
mained absolute monarchies, and Germany nearly such ; but 
they underwent revolutions early in the twentieth century. This 
Era of Revolution will be remembered for all future time as the 
period of political emancipation of the civilized world. The great 
power retained by the monarch of the German Empire in spite of 
the constitution of that country (sec. 504), was one of the chief 
causes of the World War that began in 19 14. 

556. China. — During the Middle Ages Europe knew little of 
the Far East, but such a condition is impossible in these days of 
steam and electricity and world-wide commerce. China remained 
for ages a sealed book to the rest of the world, and its develop- 
ment as a modern nation had its beginning in our own times. 

Great Britain began the opening up of China in 1 840-1842, in a 
short, disgraceful war in which she forced the opium trade upon 
the Chinese and gained control of the island of Hongkong. Com- 
mercial treaties were made later by other European countries 
and by the United States. The toleration of Christian mission- 
aries was, secured, many Chinese ports were opened to foreign 
trade, and later the right to open mines and build railroads was 
obtained. 

About the close of the century a scramble for Chinese territory 
began among the European powers. Germany seized the port of 
Kiaochow (kyou'cho') in 1897 ; Russia took Port Arthur and 
practically all of Manchuria (sec. 539) ; France took a port in the 
south ; and indeed it looked as if China was to be partitioned as 
Africa had been. The Chinese resented the intrusion, and in 1900 
the " Boxers," a secret society, formed a great conspiracy to 
exterminate all " Western barbarians." After considerable blood- 
shed the movement was put down. Peking was taken by the 



Advances in Government 



641 



joint forces of the Powers, and China was brought to her knees and 
forced to pay a heavy indemnity. That China did not share the 
fate of Africa is due chiefly, as noticed in an earher chapter (sec. 
540), to the wonderful and unexpected strength of Japan. 




Transportation, Old and Xkw, in China 

The Mongolian camel of caravan days is being replaced by American motor cars, 
as the picture shows. Good roads and railroads are being built in China, to meet 

modern conditions. 

A few years later, China underwent the most colossal and 
amazing revolution in history. It took France eighty years to 
bring about her present government ; the American colonies were 
almost self-governing from the time of the landing of the Pilgrims, 
and the War of the Revolution brought no great change. China, 
'on the other hand, with her population of over 300,000,000, passed 
from an absolute monarchy to a republic in a very few months, 
and with but a slight effusion of blood. 

The leaven of Western civilization had been working slowly 
in China. It resulted in the remodeling of the army and of the 
educational system, in an organized crusade against the opium 



642 The Progress of Democracy 

trade, and in a widespread feeling of opposition against the tyran- 
nical Manchu dynasty which had ruled the country since 1644. 
A very extensive revoh, started in September, 191 1, resuhed in 
dethroning the emperor in February, 19 12. A republic was set 
up, and Yuan Shih-Kai (yo6-an' she-ki'), a statesman of great tal- 
ents, was made the first president. The new president, however, 
was not wholly true to his professed principles. In 191 5-19 16 
he attempted to turn China back into an empire with himself as 
the emperor, but southern China revolted. The republic was 
then restored, but the central government under Yuan's succes- 
sors was weakened by other revolts. 

557. The Hague Conferences. — The first peace conference, 
called into existence by Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, was held at 
the Hague, in Holland, in 1 899. All the great nations and many 
small ones were represented. Disarmament, or rather the non- 
increase of armies and navies by the nations, was seriously dis- 
cussed and would no doubt have been adopted but for the opposi- 
tion of Germany. The subject of arbitration fared somewhat 
better. In spite of objections from Germany, the Hague Tribunal 
was established, consisting of judges from whom a court of arbi- 
tration could be selected whenever desired ; but it was not made 
compulsory for a nation to submit any case to arbitration. Thus 
the nations might still use force instead if they preferred. Vari- 
ous important disputes were settled satisfactorily by the Hague 
Tribunal. 

In 1907 a second conference was held at the Hague, represent- 
ing nearly all the nations of the world. Many "conventions" 
concerning neutrality and the conduct of war were framed and 
later formally ratified by all the great powers and by most of the 
other countries. 

II. Progress in Science and Industry 

558 Man's Triumph over Disease. — Of scarcely less impor- 
tance than man's political emancipation is the progress made in 
science and invention. Some of the great discoveries that have pro- 



Progress in Science and Industry 643 

foundly affected human thought, as those in astronomy, are more 
intellectual than practical. Among the most important of a 
practical nature are those pertaining to health and disease. In 
this field the last half of the nineteenth century brought mar- 
velous results. 

The germ theory of disease has been estabhshed beyond dispute. 
It has been discovered that nearly all, if not all, infectious and 
contagious diseases are caused by minute microscopic organisms, 
called bacteria or microbes, which multiply very rapidly under 
certain conditions. Each disease is caused by a particular species 
of bacteria ; and a wonderful advance was made by scientists when 
they " isolated " or identified the particular microbe that causes 
this or that human ailment. The French scientist, Pasteur 
(pas-tur', 1 822-1 895), deserves credit above all others as a pioneer 
in this field of research. 

It is now known what special organisms cause tuberculosis, 
typhoid, diphtheria, lockjaw, cholera, and various other diseases, 
and this knowledge is of vital importance in the study of how to 
prevent and cure them. To destroy the poison or toxin of these 
malignant bacteria various antitoxins are effectively used. 

Another class of germs are the " beneficent " bacteria, which 
are necessary to human life, and are far more numerous than the 
other sort. These cause the decay of vegetable matter and the 
putrefaction of dead bodies, also the fermentation necessary in 
the making of wine, vinegar, and the raising of dough for baking 
bread. They are also necessary to the growth of plant life. The 
science of bacteriology is still in its infancy and great things may 
be expected from the future. 

559. Invention and Industry. — In the chapter on the indus- 
trial revolution (ch. XXXVI) we noticed the marvelous changes 
in industrial life brought about by the invention of machinery, 
the applying of scientific knowledge to manufacturing and trans- 
portation, in the latter part of the eighteenth century and the 
beginning of the nineteenth. But the process did not stop there ; 
it has continued to this day, and some of the most important 



644 The Progress of Democracy 

inventions and improvements are those of recent times. Only a 
few of these can be mentioned here. 

In 1828 Henry Bessemer discovered that if hot air was forced 
into the furnace iron could be smelted with much less fuel than was 
necessary with cold air. A forced hot blast, and the use of coke 
as fuel, are the essential features of the smelting furnace in use 
to-day. Smelting furnaces are from seventy-five to one hundred 
feet high, and a single one will turn out a hundred tons of iron a 
day. To make steel, the iron is placed in a converter, also the 
invention of Bessemer, and there heated to a very high tempera- 
ture with the aid of a forced draft of air. This is known as the 
Bessemer process, and through its use the manufacture of steel 
has become one of the leading industries of the world. 

The middle period of the nineteenth century will always be 
remembered for the development of steam railroads. They had 
their beginning in England in the early part of the century and 
soon spread to other countries. But steam power is now largely 
supplemented by that subtle something in nature that we call 
electricity. 

From the time of Benjamin Franklin and even earlier some- 
thing was known of this form of power. In 1800 Volta, an Italian, 
invented the chemical battery for producing electricity, and Fara- 
day, an Englishman, converted the electric current into mechan- 
ical motion in 1821. The dynamo was invented thirty or forty 
years later. Dynamos driven by steam or water power produce 
practically all the electricity in common use. 

The practical uses of electricity constitute one of the marvels 
of modern times. About 1840 Professor S. F. B. Morse of the 
United States perfected the electric telegraph. In 1858 the first 
Atlantic submarine cable was laid. The transmitting of news by 
wireless telegraphy is the invention of Marconi, an Italian. In 
our time an important event may be known in any part of the 
civilized world within an hour after it occurs. Other wonders of 
electricity are the telephone, invented by Bell in 1876, and the 
arc light, invented by Edison in 1879 (both Americans) ; also the 




Bessemer Converter ix a Steel JNIill 



Progress in Science and Industry 645 

Hertzian waves, discovered (1887) by Hertz, and the "X-Rays" 
(1895) by Rontgen (both German scientists). The wonderful 
element radium was discovered by Pierre and Marie Curie (French 
and Polish-French scientists) in 1898. 

The gasoline motor is one of the most useful of modern inven- 
tions. It is coming into extensive use, most conspicuously in the 
automobile, the farm tractor, and the airship or airplane. 

Questions and Topics. — I. Why has monarchy been a more gen- 
eral form of government in the past than the republic? What is the 
great weakness of a monarchy? What is the greatest fact in modern 
history? What has the great democratic movement of the past cen- 
tury and a half meant for the common man? In what way can it be 
shown that the United States is the pioneer in self-government ? Why 
is France associated with us in this respect? Why is it impossible for 
the Far East to remain unknown to Europe in our time as it did in the 
Middle Ages? Tell of the scramble for Chinese territory by the Euro- 
pean nations. Describe the great revolution in China in 1912. 

II. What discoveries has science made with reference to the germs 
that cause disease? Name some diseases of which the germ has been 
isolated. What is anti-tOxin? What are the uses of benevolent bac- 
teria? Relate the development in the production and uses of electricity; 
of the gasoline motor. 



THE WORLD WAR 

CHAPTER XLVI 
CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS OF THE WORLD WAR 

I. Historical Background 

All other wars in the world's history are dwarfed in comparison 
with the terrible conflagration that broke out in Europe at the 
beginning of August, 19 14. This World War brought untold 




Lands Involved in the World War 

More than seven eighths of the inhabited area of the world took part in the war, 
as indicated by the black shading, 

regret and disappointment to lovers of peace in all lands : men 
and women in vast numbers had fondly believed that great wars 
among civilized men were a thing of the past and that universal 
peace would eventually reign. 

What was the situation in Europe in the summer of 19 14, and 
what were the causes of the great conflict ? 

646 



Historical Background 647 

560. Europe in 19 14. — The general condition of prosperity 
and contentment throughout Europe was menaced by several 
dangerous exceptions. 

Treaties made without regard to the wishes of the people 
affected had left various districts under the rule of ahen governors. 
Thus the Poles (sec. 366) groaned under the government of 
Russia, Austria, and Germany ; some Danes and Frenchmen 
were unwilling subjects of Germany; the Finns, Esthonians, 
Letts, Lithuanians, many Jews, and other people were oppressed 
by Russia; Itahans, Serbs, Roumanians, Bohemians, and others 
by Austria-Hungary; even a few Bulgarians by Serbia. But 
the unrest of such oppressed races and parts of races played only 
a minor part in bringing on the war. 

A more serious element of danger was the persistence of au- 
tocracy in Russia ' and the German Empire. As we have seen 
in the last chapter, the triumphant sweep of democracy stopped 
short in those countries. In each of them the emperor had 
unrestrained control of the administrative machinery of the 
government, the absolute power to make treaties, and of course 
the supreme command of the army and navy. Each emperor 
was so well intrenched in power that he could dictate the meas- 
ures to be passed by the lawmaking bodies. Either emperor, 
supported by a small class of office-holding nobles, could plunge 
his country into war without having to reckon with the interests 
of the great majority of the people. In Germany for a generation 
the schools and universities had trained the people to believe that 
the state can do no wrong ; ^ and public opinion, from day to day, 
was largely controlled and directed through a strict censorship 
of the press. Moreover the great material prosperity of the 
Germans, under the paternal control of their government, was a 

' The German iiniversities had done much toward fostering military spirit. 
Professor Treitschke (trich'ke) of Berlin (d. 1896) took the lead as a writer in this 
field. He exalted national strength as the supreme political virtue and advocated 
the expansion of Germany at any cost, regardless of the rights of other states. He 
pointed clearly to German world empire and intimated that it should be built on 
the ruins of the British Empire. His influence on the German mind was very great. 



648 The World War 

strong influence for preventing any serious opposition to the 
power of the emperor. 

In all the countries of Europe except Russia and Germany, 
the great officers of state were more or less responsible to the 
lawmakers elected by the people, and so were disposed to act 
generally in accordance with their wishes. Austria-Hungary, 
however, though a limited monarchy, was a dual monarchy; 
and because of frequent deadlocks between the legislature of 
Austria and the legislature of Hungary, much real power was left 
to the emperor, especially in the control of the army and of foreign 
affairs. The World War began with ultimatums, and mobiliza- 
tions of armies, and declarations of war, in which the three 
emperors acted with small regard for the wishes of the 290,000,000 
people under their rule. 

Another very serious danger came from international rivalries 
in commerce and in colonial development, especially the desire 
of the ruling classes of Germany for a better " place in the sun." 

561. The German Menace. — That the German government 
was determined to extend the dominions of Germany, by war if 
necessary, was indicated by many facts. The German population 
was increasing rapidly, and the German government was dis- 
pleased because many subjects were being lost to the empire by 
emigration to other lands. Prussia, the dominating force in the 
empire, had profited greatly by recent wars against Denmark, 
Austria, and France (sees. 491-495). Since 1871 Germany had 
steadily built up a stronger and ever stronger army, until it was 
more formidable by far than any other nation ever had. So 
elaborate was the system that the schedule for the departure of 
trains from the various military centers to any possible seat of war 
was fixed years in advance. Since the accession of William II, 
also, Germany had built up a great navy. In a public speech 
the kaiser once said, " Our future lies on the water " ; and again, 
" German colonial aims will be gained only when Germany 
becomes master of the ocean." The island kingdom of Great 
Britain, however, adopted the poHcy of keeping her navy stronger 




Loug^itude 



Historical Background 



649 



than Germany's, at whatever cost ; and both France and Russia 
followed, as well as they could, the pace set by Germany in building 
up both armies and navies. As early as 1899, at the first peace 
conference at the Hague, the Russian emperor proposed a general 
limitation of armaments ; but Germany refused the proposition. 




Long-range German Howitzer 

At the outbreak of the World War, Germany and Austria were provided with 
many large-caliber guns more effective than any before used. 

Having a powerful war machine — more powerful than was 
needed for mere defense — Germany in various disputes 
threatened war if her demands were not complied with. For 
example, in 1905 she objected to the French plans of reform in 
Morocco, a turbulent and half-civiUzed country adjoining French 
territory. Under threats of war she forced the resignation of 
Delcasse (del-ka-sa'), the able French minister of foreign affairs, 
and the calling of a general conference of the powers to settle the 
Moroccan question. She hoped by these maneuvers to sow dis- 

EL. M. T. — 42 



650 The World War 

cord between France and Great Britain, which had recently come 
to friendly agreement through Delcasse's efforts. But the result 
was just the opposite. No nation could assume to lay down the 
law for its neighbors without forcing them closer together for 
mutual protection. Not only did Great Britain and France stand 
together, but Great Britain also soon came to agreement with 
Russia on the Asiatic questions which had formerly separated 
them. Thereafter we find the six Great Powers divided into two 
opposing groups — the Triple Entente (aN-taNt') composed of 
France, Russia, and Great Britain ; and the Triple Alliance, 
formed nearly twenty-five years earlier and composed of Germany, 
Austria-Hungary, and Italy.^ 

562. Austro-German Designs in the Balkan States. — In the 
steps that led up to the World War, Austria-Hungary acted in 
close alliance with Germany. For some years before 19 14, the 
German emperor had cultivated close relations with Turkey also. 
German officers were sent to train the Turkish army, and German 
financiers secured concessions for many enterprises in the Turkish 
dominions. Most noted of all was the concession for building a 
railroad through Asiatic Turkey from the Bosporus to Bagdad 
(map facing page 609). From Berlin to the Bosporus a railroad 
was already in existence, passing through Austria- Hungary, Serbia, 
and Bulgaria.. There is every reason to believe that the Austrian 
and German emperors, long before 19 14, designed to extend their 
controlling influence over the whole Balkan region, so as to secure 
uninterrupted command of the railroad connecting Germany and 
Turkey. Such domination of the Balkans and of Turkey would 
not only menace the British control of Egypt and India, but 
would also cut off Russia from free access to the Mediterranean. 

When Austria-Hungary annexed the Turkish provinces of Bosnia 
and Herzegovina in 1908, Russia protested on behalf of their 
Slavic inhabitants (mostly Serbs), who would have preferred union 

1 In the World War, the Entente powers and the nations allied with them were 
called the Allies, while Germany and Austria-Himgary were called the Central 
Powers. 



Historical Background 651 

with Serbia ; but Germany threatened war if the Austrian plans 
were interfered with, and Russia gave way. At the end of the first 
Balkan War (sec. 546) Austria insisted on the creation of an inde- 
pendent Albania, in order to cripple Serbia by cutting her off from 
the sea. In the second Balkan War Austria and Germany were 
chagrined at the defeat of Bulgaria, whose king had been en- 
couraged by them to attack Serbia. Austria, in fact, was so 
disturbed by the Serbian success in the Balkan wars, that in 
August, 19 13, she secretly proposed to make war on Serbia, but 
desisted on learning that her ally Italy would not support her in 
such an attack. 

Here, then, were the dangerous features of the European situa- 
tion, in June, 1914 : various peoples restless under alien rule, three 
irresponsible emperors wielding enormous power, and especially 
the desire of Germany and Austria to control the Balkan states. 

II. Invasion of Belgium and France 

563. The World War Begun. — The heir of the Austro- 
Hungarian throne was the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, nephew 
of the aged reigning monarch, Francis Joseph. In June, 19 14, 
Francis Ferdinand and his wife made a tour into Bosnia (sec. 545), 
and while driving through the little city of Sarajevo (sa'ra-ya-v6) 
were assassinated by a young Serb native of Bosnia. The world 
was shocked at the news of the crime. The Austrians were fu- 
rious in the belief that the atrocious deed had been plotted in Serbia. 
But the Austro-Hungarian government did not act in hasty wrath ; 
it moved with cold and calculating deliberation. Austria con- 
sulted with the German government, and after three and a half 
weeks of secret preparation she sent (July 23) a startling ultima- 
tum to Serbia.^ This ultimatum demanded, among other things, 

> It is significant that the time chosen for thus forcing a war with Serbia was when 
France was weakened by internal differences, Russia had not fully recovered from 
the Japanese war and revolutionary disturbances, and Great Britain was supposed 
to be on the verge of civil war over the Irish question (sec. 522) ; also that the re- 
construction of the Kiel Canal for warlike purposes was completed in June, 1914. 



652 The World War 

that all anti-Austrian agitation be ofificially prohibited in Serbia, 
that all Serbian officers accused of such agitation by Austria 
be removed from office, that accessories to the assassination plot 
be proceeded against, the Austrian government to take part in 
the investigation, and that an answer be given to these demands 
within forty-eight hours. 

Serbia could not fully comply with such demands without sur- 
rendering her sovereignty. Nevertheless, she complied with nearly 
all the demands, and offered to submit to arbitration by the Great 
Powers in case Austria was not satisfied. Russia, Great Britain, 
France, and Italy favored a peaceful settlement ; but Germany re- 
fused the suggestion of a conference such as France had consented 
to in the case of Morocco (sec. 561), or such as Russia had con- 
sented to in regard to the Balkans in 1878 (sec. 545). Germany 
refused even to suggest any other plan when asked by Great 
Britain to do so for preserving the peace of Europe. 

Austria hastened to declare war on Serbia, July 28, 1914. She 
knew that this probably meant war with Russia also, for Russia, 
bound to Serbia by ties of kinship and religion, and opposed to 
the extension of Austrian power in the Balkans, had explicitly 
declared that she would not stand by and permit the little nation 
to be overwhelmed by the great one. But Austria was supported 
by Germany, which declared that the Serbian war was a local 
quarrel, that Russia had no right to interfere, and that if Russia 
mobilized her armies Germany would do the same. Finally when 
the Russian and Austrian emperors showed signs of yielding to 
the pressure of public opinion for delay and a conference to pre- 
serve the peace, the German emperor precipitated the World War 
by an ultimatum demanding that Russia demobilize (while leav- 
ing Austria a free hand) ; and then by declaring war on Russia, 
August I. 

France was bound by treaty to come to the assistance of Russia 
in a defensive war, and Germany declared war on France also, 
August 3, on learning that France would meet her obligations to 
her ally. 



Invasion of Belgium and France 



653 



564. Invasion of Belgium. — As the eastern frontier of France 
was guarded by strong forts, it was easier for German forces to 
attack that country on the north, after marching through two 
small countries, Luxemburg and Belgium, whose neutrahty had 
been guaranteed by the Great Powers, including Prussia. In 
violation not only of their neutralit}^ but also of the Prussian 




Belgians Fleeixg before the German -Advance 

The children are being carried in a cart drawn by dogs, such as are in general use 
throughout the country. 

guaranty by which Germany was bound, German armies overran 
both little countries. The invasion of neutral Belgium ^ was the 

1 The German Chancellor in a speech before the Reichstag on August 4 said : 
"We are now in a state of necessity, and necessity knows no law. Our troops have 
occupied Luxemburg and perhaps are already on Belgian soil. Gentlemen, that is 
contrary to the dictates of international law. . . . We knew, however, that France 
stood ready for invasion. France could wait but we could not. ... So we were 
compelled to override the just protest of the Luxemburg and Belgian governments. 
The wrong — I speak frankly — that we are committing we will endeavor to make 
good as soon as our military goal has been reached." (The claim that France stood 
ready for the invasion of Belgium was unfounded ; France had promised to respect 
Belgian neutrality.) On the same day the German Chancellor reproved the British 
for making war merely "for a scrap of paper," referring to the treaty under which 
Belgian neutrality was guaranteed by Great Britain and the other powers. 



654 



The World War 



occasion of Great Britain's declaration of war on Germany, 
August 4 ; but the cause lay deeper. Great Britain had a vital 
interest in Belgian independence, for German possession of that 
country would bring a powerful, unfriendly nation close to her 
own coasts. Moreover, it was likewise contrary to British 
interests to suffer France to be crushed by Germany. 




The Western Front 

Italy was bound by treaty to assist the other nations of the 
Triple Alliance in a defensive war ; but she declared her neutrality 
in 1 9 14, on the ground that Germany and Austria- Hungary were 
the aggressors. 

In every one of the warring nations, however, the majority of 
the people were easily persuaded that their own government was 



Invasion of Belgium and France 655 

in the right. Even the SociaHsts, who had for years denounced 
war and proclaimed the doctrine of international brotherhood, 
responded promptly to the call to arms, following the lead of the 
Socialist delegates in the German Reichstag, who upheld their 
kaiser and voted to a man for the first great war loan. 

565. The Battle of the Marne. — The German general staff 
had decided to capture Paris and overwhelm France by a quick 
dash before Russia could fully mobilize, and then to deal with 
Russia later. But Belgium delayed one German army, at Liege 
(le-ezh') and elsewhere, by loyally defending her soil against 
invasion ; the British sent over a small army to the aid of France ; 
and the great French armies surprised the world by the speed 
and skill and steadiness with which they mobilized and fought to 
save their country. 

Pushing through Belgium, and cowing the Belgian people by 
frightful severity, the northernmost German armies took their 
places on French soil at the end of August, two weeks later than 
they had expected, but ready at last for their dash on Paris. The 
city was surrounded by forts that cost eighty million dollars, but 
these could afford only temporary protection. In the capture 
of Liege the Germans had revealed to the world the startling fact 
that no fortifications — earth, rock, cement, or steel — could 
withstand modern artillery. Preceded by scouting cavalry 
and airplanes, and followed by miles of artillery trains, the mighty 
German armies, 800,000 strong, pushed forward day after day, 
delayed only here and there by heavy fighting. General Joffre 
(zho'fr), the French commander, was severely criticized for not 
making a stand ; but he knew what he was about. By falling back 
he gained time to raise the strength of his armies, while the Ger- 
mans had a harder task to keep their forces supplied with food 
and munitions. At length, on September 6, when the Germans 
were only thirty miles from Paris, Joffre gave the command to 
hold fast. 

The battle of the Marne is so called because the decisive fighting 
was in the valley of that river ; but the battle lines extended from 




After the Battle of the Marne 

A steel and concrete railway bridge across the Marne River destroyed by the 

retreating Germans. Many roads and bridges were wrecked during the war by 

retreating armies to delay the advance of their pursuers. 




After the Battle of the Marne 

Scene of a hand-to-hand conflict, strewn with the wreckage of war. The basin of 

the Marne is a gently rolling country where every building, haystack, and wayside 

bank was sought as protection by the fighters. 

656 



Invasion of Belgium and France 657 

Paris to the great fortress of Verdun, a distance of 180 miles. 
The soldiers on each side numbered about a million. The Ger- 
mans boldly massed their chief strength in the center and tried 
to break the Allied line in two. For three or four days their 
onslaughts were terrific, but they failed. Meantime General 
Joffre struck and defeated the German right flank,- north of Paris. 
The invaders lost heavily, and saved themselves from disaster 
only by a retreat of fifty miles. France was saved. 

In losing the battle of the Mame the Germans lost the war. 
Never in the four years' warfare that followed could they recover 
from this failure. Perhaps future historians, therefore, will place 
the battle of the Mame among the decisive battles of the world's 
history. 

566. The Aisne, Calais, and Antwerp. — After their repulse at 
the Marne, the Germans retreated to a strong position on the Aisne 
(an) River. Here took place the battle of the Aisne (September 
13-28, 19 14), a clash of arms even greater than that of the Marne. 
It was indecisive. Each side lost thousands of men, but neither 
gained any advantage. 

The next great move was a race for the sea. If the Germans 
could gain control of the French coast opposite England, it would 
be of immense advantage to them. The city of Calais was their 
objective. After several weeks of maneuvering on a gigantic 
scale, both sides extended their lines to the coast, in Belgium, on 
October 15. A little later the Germans made another desperate 
effort to take Calais and that part of the coast they so much 
desired ; but they were thwarted, and their failure was due in part 
to the flooding of the country by the Belgians and to the aid of 
British warships that had steamed to the rescue. 

Meantime, on October 9, the Germans captured Antwerp, one 
of the most strongly fortified cities in the world. The great 
fortresses guarding the city crumbled under the tremendous 
bombardment of the German guns. Thousands of the people 
fled from the city and among them a fine Belgian army, which was 
thus saved for further service. As the winter approached, the 



658 



The World War 




One of the Trenches Used by the French 

The trenches were often reenforced by sandbags, and protected on the side toward 

the enemy by barbed wire entanglements. There were usually two or three lines 

of trenches, connected by communicating passages, which made it possible to pass 

from one to another without exposure to the enemy. 



opposing armies along the Aisne "dug in" and settled down to 
what came to be known as trench warfare. 

567. The War on the Russian Front, 1914. — Russia mobilized 
an army of three quarters of a million men with surprising rapidity. 
Germany had counted on at least six weeks of Russian mobiliza- 
tion, but scarcely three weeks passed before the kaiser found it 
necessary to draw heavily on his forces to meet the foe in the east. 
The Russian forces, under Grand Duke Nicholas, uncle of the 
tsar, were divided into three great armies. One of these moved 
into Austrian Galicia, the other two into East Prussia. 

A German army under Von Hin'denburg, a veteran commander, 
attacked the Russians in East Prussia, defeated them in a great 
three-days battle and captured 70,000 of their number. The 
Russians in Galicia were more successful. They captured Lem- 
berg and many other cities and made cavalry raids into Hungary. 



End of 1914 659 

Though defeated in East Prussia, the Russians forced Germany 
to divert many troops from France and Belgium, thus giving 
Great Britain time to train and put into the field a large army. 

At the close of 19 14 both sides seemed confident of ultimate 
success. Germany had failed to win the swift victory she had 
expected, had failed to capture Paris or the Channel ports ; but 
she held strong positions in Belgium and France, she had won 
great victories on the Russian front, and Turkey had cast her lot 
with the Central Powers. The Allies were equally confident. It 
is true that the regular British army of 150,000 men had been al- 
most annihilated, 200,000 French had been capturfed, and great 
sections of France and Belgium were held by the enemy. But, on 
the other hand, they had saved Paris and Calais ; they had won 
at the Marne, two million Frenchmen were under arms, nearly as 
many British were in training, and the British Colonials — Cana- 
dians, Hindus, Australians — were arming by hundreds of thou- 
sands. Thus in confidence both sides awaited the gigantic opera- 
tions that were sure to come with the opening of the spring. 

Questions and Topics. — I. By whom were the Poles governed in 
1914? What other peoples were under alien governments at that time? 
What three European empires had irresponsible rulers in 1914? What 
is meant by an irresponsible ruler? Why did Germany and Austria wish 
to get control of the Balkans? Sum up the three dangerous features of 
the European situation in 19 14. 

II. Why did Austria make such demands on Serbia owing to the 
murder of the Austrian archduke? What must have been Germany's 
reasons for refusing the British offer to settle the trouble without war? 
Why did Germany invade Belgium? What part did Belgium play 
in saving Paris from capture? Russia? Why was the Marne an im- 
portant battle ? 

Dates and Events. — Assassination of Francis Ferdinand, June 28, 
191 4. Austria declares war on Serbia July 28; Germany on Russia, 
August I ; Great Britain on Germany, Augus.t 4. Battle of the Marne, 
September 6-10. 

For Further Reading. — Davis, Roots of the War. This is the best 
short account of European conditions and of the causes and beginnings 
of the war. McKinley, Coulomb, and Gerson, The World War. 



CHAPTER XLVII 

THE WAR IN 1915-1917 

I. Russia, Turkey, and the Balkans 

568. The Russian Front in 1915-1916. — Having failed to 
crush France, the Germans next tried to crush Russia. The 
Russian battle line at the beginning of 191 5 was nearly 900 miles 




The Russian and Other Fronts 
660 



The Russian Front, 1915-1916 661 

in length. During the winter the Germans cleared East Prussia 
of Russians and pushed into Russian Poland, but met defeat in an 
attempt on Warsaw. Meantime the Russians attacked the great 
Austrian fortress of Przemysl (pshem'ishl-y') and forced its sur- 
render on March 22, 19 15, after a siege of four and a half months, 
with 120,000 prisoners and 1000 guns. 

Austrian forces defeated by Russia were now stiffened by 
German reenforcements and German control. During the spring 
months a very large Austro- German army was concentrated in 
Galicia under Von Mack'ensen. On May i, 191 5, a great drive 
was launched against the Russians. By midsummer Lemberg and 
Przemysl had been recaptured and the Russians, defeated in 
various battles, had retreated from nearly all of Galicia. Farther 
north another great drive, led by Von Hindenburg, and covering 
several months, resulted in the capture of Warsaw (August 5), 
the conquest of Russian Poland and of a large tract in western 
Russia. The Russians were short of munitions and could make 
no successful stand, but Grand Duke Nicholas withdrew his 
army with such skill as to save most of his men and guns from 
capture. The Russian losses for the summer, however, were 
about two million men. 

The cup of sorrow to the bitterest dregs was meted out to 
Poland. Innocent of the war, her people, like the Belgians, were 
trodden in the dust by ruthless armies, their land was made 
desolate, and numbers of them perished of starvation and exposure. 

In 1916 the Russians recovered part of the lost ground in 
Galicia and the adjoining part of Russia, and inflicted heavy 
losses on the Austrians : but Poland remained under German 
control. 

569. Turkey and the Dardanelles. — That Turkey, at the 
behest of Germany, would enter the war against the Allies, was 
arranged by a secret alliance. She did so in November, 19 14. 
At the behest of Germany, also, she proclaimed a " holy war " 
in the hope of stirring up the Moslems in Morocco against the 
French, and in Egypt and India against the British. The " holy 



662 The World War 

war " had Httle efifect in those countries ; but in Turkey itself, 
without a word of protest from the German government, a million 
Christian Armenians and Syrians were exterminated by Turkish 
forces. 

Before the war Cyprus and Egypt were nominally vassals of 
Turkey, though under the control of Great Britain ; but Great 
Britain now annexed Cyprus to the British crown and declared 
Egypt a British protectorate independent of Turkey. 

Soon after Turkey began war the Allies planned an important 
move against her — no less than a forcing of the Dardanelles 
(dar-da-nelz') and the capture of Constantinople. Success there 
would greatly weaken Turkey, make Egypt and India safe from 
Turkish attack, and reopen a trade route b}^ which Russia could 
export grain and import munitions. So important was the prize, 
and so great the danger of delay, that the Allies were tempted 
to make the trial by surprise, with forces too small for the task. 
In February, 1915, a British-French fleet silenced the forts at 
the entrance to the Dardanelles, and began clearing the strait 
of the mines which blocked it. But at the Narrows, where the 
strait is but three quarters of a mile wide, were more powerful 
forts, built under the direction of German experts. A desperate 
attack on them was repulsed with the loss of three ships and two 
thousand men. To reduce the forts an Allied army was after- 
ward landed on the Gallipoli (gal-le'p6-le) peninsula ; but the 
Turks were so well intrenched that little headway could be made 
against them. After a loss of more than 50,000 men, the Allies 
determined to withdraw. The Dardanelles campaign had proved 
a dismal failure. 

On the other hand, a Turkish attack on Egypt was likewise a 
failure. Russian and British armies seized large areas in the 
eastern part of Asiatic Turkey ; and most of Arabia threw off 
the Turkish yoke. 

570. The Balkans and Italy. — The years 191 5 and 1916 were 
years of great activity in the Balkan region. Soon after the war 
opened, an Austrian army invaded Serbia ; but a few months 



Turkey, the Balkans, Italy 663 ' 

later the Serbians, summoning their entire national strength, 
won a crushing victory and drove the Austrians from their soil. 
The following year a great Austro-German army, aided by the 
Bulgarians, — who entered the war in October, 191 5, — invaded 
Serbia, and like a mighty stearn roller crushed and subdued the 
whole country. In December her ally Montenegro suffered a like 
fate. A British- French army sent to the aid of Serbia was too 
small and too late for success ; but it established itself firmly 
in Salonica (sa-lo-ne'ka), was joined by many Serbs, fought the 
Bulgarians at various times, and later was influential in securing 
the accession of Greece to the cause of the Allies (191 7). Rou- 
mania, relying on Russian aid, declared war on Austria-Hungary 
in August, 19 16. But the promised aid was not forthcoming, and 
Austro-German and Bulgarian forces succeeded in overrunning 
the greater part of the country. 

Meanwhile Italy had joined the Allies in May, 191 5, in spite of 
their impending failure at the Dardanelles and the terrible Russian 
defeat in Galicia. German influence had been exerted to the ut- 
most to keep Italy at least neutral, if she could not be induced to 
fight on the side of the Central Powers ; but the Italian govern- 
ment, urged on by the Italian people, at length declared war on 
Austria- Hungary, hoping to acquire the Italian-speaking regions 
that were still under Austrian rule. In two years of hard fighting 
the Italian armies made only small gains, but they occupied the 
attention of a large part of the Austrian forces. 

II. The Western Front, and War on the Sea 

571. Ypres, Verdun, and the Somme. — From the North Sea 
to the Swiss border, a distance of over 400 miles, stretched the 
trenches of the Western Front, and it was here, in the behef of 
many war experts, that the main issues of the World War were to 
be decided. For month after month the armies were deadlocked, 
but the fighting was almost continuous, and there were occasional 
gigantic battles, only a few of which can be noticed here. 



664 The World War 

At Ypres (e'pr') in May and June, 191 5, the Germans gained 
some advantage by the use of poisonous chlorine gas, a factor 
wholly new in warfare. The Alhes were amazed at the introduc- 
tion of this cruel weapon, but soon learned to protect themselves 
by means of respirators or masks. 

The spring of 1916 was marked by the tremendous battle of 
Verdun. The Germans had cogent reasons for launching a great 
offensive against this historic fortress (sec. 211). The Russian 
system seemed on the verge of collapse ; the British had failed 
at the Dardanelles, and the British army in France and Belgium 
was yet in the making ; Italy had made little headway ; Belgium 
and Serbia were crushed. But France still held a steady course, 
determined and unconquered, Why not strike a telling blow at 
France? Thirty-six forts bristled from the hilltops around 
Verdun. Could the Germans seize this region, they might deal 
France a mortal blow, end the war in their favor, and make 
for the crown prince, the heir to the imperial throne, who 
commanded in that section, an immortal military reputation. 

For weeks the crown prince massed his legions and heavy guns 
in front of the fortress, stealthily, in the hope of taking the French 
by surprise. On February 2 1 the deep, tremendous roar of the 
artillery announced the opening of this titanic conflict. In four 
days the Germans advanced four miles, but the vital defenses 
of Verdun were yet unshaken. The French had been greatly 
reenforced, and when on the 25 th the Germans surged up the 
snow-covered slopes of Douaumont (doo-o-moN') Hill, wave on 
wave, the steady fire of the French guns mowed them down in 
countless numbers. Next day the French made a counter 
attack. For four days longer the battle raged with indescribable 
fury. Then came a lull in the German attack. The crisis was 
past and Verdun was not captured. For many weeks thereafter 
— until far into the summer — the baffled crown prince drove his 
legions to the slaughter, but made only slight gains. Late in 
the autumn the French made a counter drive and won back in 
a day much of the territory that the Germans had taken in four 



War on the Sea 665 













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French naval guns taken by the Germans and later retaken by the French. 

months. The battle of Verdun cost the Germans half a million 
men, and the French nearly as many. General Petain (pa-taN'), 
the victor of Verdun, was later promoted to the command of all 
the French forces. 

Before the battle of Verdun had ended, another gigantic contest, 
a hundred miles to the northwest from Verdun, on the banks of 
the Somme (som) River, was begun. It is known as the battle 
of the Somme. On June 30, 19 16, a terrific assault on thirty 
miles of the German lines by Allied armies opened the battle. 
For five weeks the battle raged almost day and night, and after a 
pause during August, it continued again for six weeks. The Allies 
— largely British — won 120 square miles of territory and captured 
nearly 100,000 men. The losses in killed and wounded on both 
sides were greater than at Verdun. 

572. War on the Sea, and Beyond the Seas, 1914-1917. — 
From the battle of Salamis (sec. 98) to the present day sea power 
has played a great part in the wars of the world ; and it greatly 
affected the World War. Great Britain is the only great nation 
that cannot live without sea-borne commerce, and her people are 
aware that they would be at the mercy of any nation that might 
el. m. t. ^43 



666 



The World War 



surpass her on the water. This explains why the British have for 
centuries kept their navy stronger than that of any other power. 
At the beginning of the war the German navy, the second in 
the world, was yet far inferior to the British navy, and its only 
assurance of safety lay in seeking cover as quickly as possible. 




A British Dreadnaught 



This type of battleship is designed to carry the largest guns and is protected by 
very heavy steel plates sheathing the sides and deck. 

The German fleet was soon bottled up in the Baltic Sea and the 
Kiel Canal, protected by mines and fortifications ; the Austro- 
Hungarian fleet found safety in Adriatic ports, and the merchant 
marines of both countries disappeared from the high seas. 

A few of the swifter German vessels, however, were left at large, 
and until caught they did what they could to interfere with the 
commerce of the Allies.^ Soon the Allies were left in almost 
undisputed command of the sea, and not till the, end of May, 

1 One of these, the Emden, roamed the Indian Ocean and the southern seas for 
three months and destroyed twenty-five merchant vessels ; but at last she was 
destroyed (November lo, 1914), by the Sydney, an Austrahan cruiser. 



The War in 191 7 667 

1 916, was there an important naval battle. A great German fleet, 
having then ventured to sail a few miles from its home port, was 
boldly attacked by a smaller British fleet under Admiral Beatty, 
in the battle of Jutland, off the Danish coast. Beatty' s aim was 
to hold the enemy until the main British fleet, under Admiral 
Jellicoe, could arrive on the scene. But on the approach of that 
fleet, about nightfall, most of the German ships succeeded in 
making their escape. On each side thousands of men and a 
number of ships were lost, though only a small fraction of the 
forces engaged. The British victory was decisive ; the Germans 
did not risk another battle at sea. 

Throughout the war, however, German submarines were active, 
at first against warships and later, more effectively, against un- 
armed merchant ships (sees. 576, 579). 

It was chiefly because of British naval power that the Allies 
were able to carry on their ocean commerce, and to move their 
troops freely on the seas, and were free from serious attacks on 
their coasts or on their colonies. On the other hand, all the 
German colonies — in Africa and in the Pacific Ocean — were 
seized by Allied forces. The taking of Kiaochow was chiefly the 
work of Japan, which entered the struggle in 1914 as an ally of 
Great Britain, for the purpose of excluding German aggression 
from the North Tacific. Portugal also entered the war as an 
ally of Great Britain, in 1916. The British and French colonies 
were loyal, and gave much aid to the mother countries. 

III. The War in 1917 

573. The Russian Revolution, 1917. — Early in 1917, trouble 
in Russia reached a crisis. The country was chiefly agricultural 
with comparatively few factories and an inadequate system of 
railroads. More than half the people were illiterate, and many 
of the government officials were corrupt or secretly pro-German. 
Under the extra burden of carrying on a great war, both the rail- 
road system and the governmental machinery broke down. The 



668 The World War 

unrest of hungry workmen found expression in riots and strikes. 
Tsar Nicholas II was too weak, and too much hampered by the 
influence of a few pro-German advisers, to cope with the situation. 
On March 15, 1917, he abdicated his throne at the demand of 
patriotic leaders, who formed a provisional government. But 
any efficient government was made impossible by the demands of 
Socialist workmen and soldiers, whose first move was to under- 
mine the discipline of the army. One of their representatives, 
Ker'ensky, was presently made minister of war and prime min- 
ister. Unlike most of the soldiers and workmen, he believed that 
victory of the Allies was necessary for the salvation of Russia. 
Under his leadership a spirited drive was launched on the Galician 
front. For a brief period the Russians made rapid progress and 
took thousands of prisoners. Then came reverses due to the lack 
of discipline ; thousands of Russian soldiers openly voted to dis- 
obey orders, and began to fraternize with Austro-German soldiers. 
From this time on the Russian army was demoralized. German 
forces had little difficulty in capturing Riga (re'ga) and other 
cities in the Baltic region. 

Kerensky's aim was to unite all classes in the defense of a Rus- 
sian republic. In November, however, the Bolsheviki (bol-she- 
ve-ke'), or extreme Socialists, seized the government offices at 
Petrograd and by civil war they gradually extended their power 
over the greater part of Russia. ^ They demanded immediate 
peace, a new division of the land, and a permanent government 
by the working class only. But Finland, Ukraine, and other parts 
of the empire succeeded in setting up independent governments. 
In December an armistice was arranged by the Bolsheviki with 
the Central Powers for the purpose of discussing terms of peace. 

1 In August, 1 91 7, the tsar and his family had been sent, by the provisional 
government, to Tobolsk in western Siberia, where they remained until April of the 
next year. The Bolsheviki then transferred them to Ekaterinburg, in eastern 
Russia, during one of the civil wars that followed the Bolshevist revolution. In 
July, 1918, while still under close confinement by Bolshevist soldiers, they were put 
to death — Tsar Nicholas, hia wife, and all their children, together with several 
attendants. ' , 



The War in 191 7 669 

574. The Campaigns of 19 17. — The collapse of Russia made 

the task of the other AlHes harder, because many Austro-German 
troops could now be taken from the Russian front for use else- 
where. Yet the Allies won more than they lost in 191 7, except 
in Russia. Early in the year, a continuation of the battle of 
the Somme forced the Germans to retire to a new line, giving up 
more than a thousand square miles of territory in northern 
France. At each end of the new line the Allies struck promptly 
and successfully, taking strong positions and many thousand 
prisoners, the British near Arras (a-ras'), and the French near 
Rheims. The British also took many villages and strong posi- 
tions in Belgium. The last great drive of the year was begun 
by the British near Cambrai (kaN-bre'), November 20. By 
the use of many tanks (a special kind of heavy armored auto- 
mobile) and without the usual artillery preparation, they made 
a surprise attack on a strong part of the new German line, and 
took much ground and 12,000 prisoners. But a few days later 
the Germans made a counter attack, regained much of the 
territory, and captured 9000 prisoners and some of the British 
tanks. This was the only defeat of the Allies on the Western 
Front during the whole year. 

Meanwhile, in October and November, an Austro-German army 
made a successful drive in northeastern Italy, after weakening the 
morale of part of the Italian army by insidious socialistic and 
pacifist movements. The Italians lost in a few weeks all they 
had won in two years and a great deal more. The enemy took 
many prisoners and guns and pressed back the Italian army as 
far as the Piave (pya'va) River ; but here the Italians made a 
firm stand. Some British and French forces were sent to their 
assistance. 

One of the most noted events of the year was the capture of 
Jerusalem, which for centuries had been under the control of the 
Mohammedan Turks. It was taken December 10 by a British 
expedition that had steadily advanced from Egypt through 
Palestine during the war. To Jews and Christians throughout 



670 The World War 

the world the recovery of the Holy City was an event to awaken 
the tenderest sentiments. 

IV. Modern Weapons of War 

575. Changes in the Instruments of War. — The World War 
saw many important changes in the instruments of war, and many 
startling violations of international law. 

In munitions as well as in trained men, Germany and Austria 
were better prepared than the nations which they attacked in 19 14. 
They had secretly perfected larger guns than any before used, 
and it was to them that the quick capture of Liege and Antwerp 
was due. Thus it was demonstrated that no existing fortifica- 
tions could stand before modern artillery and its tremendously 
powerful explosives. Throughout the war the artillery duels, 
carried on almost daily by cannon of all sizes, were stupendous. 
The large guns cost about $150,000 each and could throw a 1400- 
pound shell 25 miles. The Germans at first surpassed the Alhes 
in their artillery, but gradually that advantage was reversed. 

The machine gun also (picture on page 681), as well as cannon, 
was used on a far larger scale than in previous wars. The rifle 
has not become obsolete, but it has been largely replaced or supple- 
mented by the machine gun, which can send forth its bullets a 
himdred times faster. 

Other notable features of the war were the extensive use of 
trenches, and of barbed-wire entanglements to protect them 
from sudden attack, and the consequent restoration of the hand 
grenade as a weapon of importance. Armored automobiles of 
various types were experimented with, and finally the British 
developed the tank, heavily armored, manned with machine guns 
and small cannon, and able to travel over the roughest ground, 
smash through barbed wire, cross ordinary trenches, and even 
push down trees and buildings. 

In former wars the cavalry division of an army was one of its 
most important constituents. In the World War it was not so. 
Cavalry was still used, but it was no longer what it had been in the 



Modern Weapons of War 



671 




A Tank in Action 

Infantrymen are advancing up hill, behind the tank. 
steered by two caterpillar treads moved like belts - 



The tank is propelled and 
- an American invention. 



winning of battles : first, because it could so readily be mowed 
down, man and horse, by the deadly machine guns ; second, be- 
cause the rapid movement of troops could be accomplished 
more quickly by automobile ; and third, because one of its chief 
functions, that of observation and reconnoitering, could be accom- 
plished far better by means of the airplane. This brings us 
to the most important war improvement in this generation — 
the flying machine. 

The aircraft are of many different designs, from the simple 
monoplane to the great dirigible balloon. In Germany, Count 
Zeppelin (tsep-e-len') built dirigibles of enormous size and power, 
but as an instrument of war they proved a costly failure because 
they were no match for the agile airplane in battle. On the other 
hand, the importance of the airplane grew steadily. Its uses are 
various. The fighting flyer meets its antagonist high in the air, 
where they engage in a death duel. The bombing planes usually 
go in fleets and drop explosives on the enemy's works, often 
causing great destruction. Of still greater importance are the 
scouting plane, which reports the enemy's position and move- 
ments in detail, sometimes by means of photographs, and the 



672 The World War 

observation plane, which takes the range and gives the necessary 
directions for the firing of artillery.^ 

All these weapons and war machines, as described above, were 
lawful according to the accepted principles of international law, 
and the definite provisions of Hague conventions accepted as bind- 
ing by all the nations at war. But the German forces, in defiance 
of those principles and conventions, introduced also flame throwers 
and the use of poisonous gases ; and as poison gas proved to be a 
powerful weapon, their example was followed by the Allies. 

576. Changes in Naval Warfare. — In naval warfare the 
changes were less remarkable than those on the land, but several 
new types of warships were now used for the first time. Guns 
on the larger ships were effective at ranges of twelve miles and 
more, so that some of the fighting in the battle of Jutland (sec. 
572) was against ships that could not be seen by the gunners 
because of the curvature of the earth's surface. The firing on 
large ships is directed by men stationed on the masts. 

Many submarines or submersible ships were built by the Great 
Powers, and some were armed with guns as well as with torpedo 
tubes. But in attacking ships of war they proved of little avail, 
because too slow and too vulnerable. Disappointed in the hopes 
of crippling the British navy by means of submarines, the German 
government decided to use them in attacks on merchant ships, 
which at first proved easy prey. The Allies gradually developed 
effective means of combating the submarines, but meanwhile 
these new terrors of the sea destroyed hundreds of ships and 
brought the United States into the war, as we shall see in the 
following chapter. 

1 The picture on the opposite page shows airplanes in various positions of 
flight. The airplane was the invention chiefly of two Americans, the Wright 
brothers, whose experiments covered a period of many years. In 1905, these two 
men made successful flights — one of 24 miles, at the rate of 35 miles an hour. In 
1908 Wilbur Wright took a machine to France, where he broke the world's record 
with a flight of 52 miles, being in the air 91 minutes. Soon after this the French 
government gave the Wrights an order for thirty machines. In 1920 France 
honored Wright with a memorial at the city of Le Mans, near Paris. 




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Modern Weapons of War 673 

577. German "War Methods. — In all wars some atrocious 
crimes are likely to be committed by soldiers of bad character 
who get beyond the control of their officers. But in the World 
War a far more serious matter was the definite policy of frightful- 
ness adopted by the German government in the treatment of its 
enemies, whether armed or unarmed.^ 

In violation of the Hague conventions, cities and districts 
occupied by German forces were systematically terrorized and 
plundered by means of massacres, looting, the burning of whole 
towns to punish alleged crimes of single unknown individuals, the 
taking of hostages, some of whom were executed, the exacting 
of enormous fines and indemnities, and the imposition of forced 
labor in the cutting of timber, the digging of trenches, and other 
war work. Hundreds of thousands of men, and man}^ thousands 
of women and girls, were torn from their families and deported 
to Germany or elsewhere for forced labor in factories or on farms. 

In violation of the Hague conventions, German warships, 
Zeppelins, and airplanes bombarded many undefended residential 
English and French towns, killing hundreds of women and 
children, but few men of military age. The Allies did not retaliate 
in kind until the enemy had followed the practice for more than a 
3^ear. 

In violation of international law, German submarines destroyed 
hundreds of merchant ships, both enemy and neutral, without pre- 
vious visit and search and without provision for the safety of 
noncombatant passengers and crew. When the Lusitania was 

1 In 1878 the German general Von Hartmann gave expression to this policy in 
the following words: "Whenever a national war breaks out, terrorism becomes a 
necessary military principle." And again, "It is a gratuitous illusion to suppose 
that modern war does not demand far more brutality, far more violence, and an 
action far more general than was formerly the case." In 1900 the kaiser himself, 
in bidding farewell to the German troops sent to help quell the Boxer uprising in 
China, said: " As soon as you come to blows with the enemy he wiU be beaten. No 
mercy will be shown ! No prisoners will be taken ! As the Huns, under King Attila, 
made a name for themselves, which is still mighty in traditions and legends to-day, 
may the name of German be so fixed in China by your deeds that no Chinese shall 
ever again dare even to look at a German askance." 



674 The World War 

thus sunk (May, 191 5), more than a thousand passengers, in- 
cluding many women and children, were drowned. In many 
other cases also there was loss of life. Germany claimed that 
such submarine warfare on merchant ships was in retaliation for 
acts of Great Britain in cutting off German trade and thus threat- 
ening Germany with starvation. But the British blockade was 
a recognized method of warfare, such as had often been employed 
by civilized nations, and therefore afforded no reason for retalia- 
tion ; it was carried on by lawful means, with full provision for 
the safety of passengers and crew of every merchant ship that 
was seized. 

Questions and Topics. — I. Describe the big German drive into 
Poland and Russia. What effect had the war on Cyprus and Egypt in 
their relation to Great Britain? What would be the advantage to the 
Allies had they taken the Dardanelles? 

II. Why did the Germans specially desire to capture Verdun? Why 
is sea power so important in war? In what way did the British navy do 
efl&cient service? 

III. What caused the Russian Revolution? Distinguish between the 
aims of Kerensky and of the Bolsheviki. 

IV. What specially new features were brought out in this war ? Why is 
cavalry of less importance than formerly ? What are the military uses of 
aircraft? In what ways did Germany disregard international usage in the 
war? 

Events and Dates. — Failure of the Allies to open the Dardanelles, 
1915. Poland taken by the Germans, 1915. Battles of Verdun and the 
Somme, 19 16. Fall of the Russian monarchy, 19 17. Capture of Jerusalem, 
by the British, December, 191 7. 

For Further Reading. — Masefield, GalUpoU. Some history of the war, 
such as the large work by Simonds or the short histories by Pollard and by 
Hayes. 



CHAPTER XLVIII 
AMERICA IN THE WAR 
I. Great Preparations 

578. Why we Entered the War. — Reluctantly the people of 

the United States were driven to the conclusion that Germany 
was defying the principles of law and humanity, and that a final 
German victory would prove a menace to civilization as well as 
to democracy. This conviction of the American people was the 
underlying cause of our entering the war. 

At the beginning of the war President Wilson issued a procla- 
mation of neutrality, but as the months passed our relations with 
Germany became more and more strained. It was found that the 
country was infested with German spies under the direction of the 
German embassy, who were inciting strikes, dynamiting munition 
factories, and plotting to blow up ships leaving our ports. ^ 

Other German agents were striving to stir up hostility against 
us in Mexico and other countries. The sinking of the Lusitania, 
through which more than a hundred American lives were lost, 
awakened widespread resentment in the United States. After 
repeated protests Germany made a conditional promise not to 
sink passenger ships (if they did not resist capture) without 
giving the passengers and crews a chance to escape in their lif e- 

1 The reason for such underhand proceedings, as the Germans maintained after 
being discovered, was that our citizens were sending munitions to the Allies and not 
to the Central Powers (because prevented by the British navy) . To the protests of 
Austria and Germany our government answered : i. That it is a right recognized by 
international law for neutrals to sell munitions to a nation at war, that Germany and 
Austria had often done so, and that it would be an unneutral act for us, single- 
handed, to change such a custom in the midst of a war. 2. That if the custom 
were changed and no nation were permitted to buy munitions while at war, every 
nation in time of peace would be obliged to keep great stores of munitions in prepara- 
tion for possible future wars. 

675 



676 The World War 

boats. But at the end of January, 191 7, she withdrew this 
promise and aimounced to the world that she would at once begin 
a ruthless submarine warfare against all ships, belligerent and 
neutral alike, within a certain zone around the coasts of her 
enemies. 

President Wilson promptly broke off diplomatic relations with 
Germany, armed our merchant vessels for defense, and awaited 
an overt act. It was not long before several of our ships were 
sunk by the submarines, and several American lives lost in the 
sinking of other ships. On April 6, 191 7, Congress declared a 
state of war with the German Empire. 

579. The Submarine Campaign. — It was well known that 
the United States could not put a large army in the field in less 
than a year. Germany hoped to win the war within this year, 
and she was ready to put forth her utmost efforts in a gigantic 
double movement. First, she would, by means of her submarines, 
ruin the British merchant marine, cut off the food supply of the 
British, and at the same time prevent the United States from 
sending troops and supplies across the Atlantic ; second, she would 
mass her armies upon the Western Front, and make a drive upon 
Paris greater than any hitherto attempted. 

Germany had made costly miscalculations from the start,. such 
as assuming that England would not fight for "a scrap of paper," 
and that Italy would come in on her side or remain neutral ; but 
her crowning blunder was made when she goaded the United 
States, with its boundless potential military power, into war by 
her decree for a ruthless submarine campaign. Perhaps the 
German leaders did not believe we would declare war for any 
cause. 

For several months after the launching of the submarine 
campaign there was deadly fear in the Allied world that it would 
be successful. The sinking of ships in European waters showed 
an alarming increase. The high tide was reached in April and 
May, 191 7. During a period of three weeks the lurking assassins 
of the sea sent 240 vessels to the bottom. Then the ebb began. 



America in the War 677 





1 


fc^ 




il' - . 


■-^IZi^^p 


IHBW 


piiP 






• v-^-r-TT**!:,— fv-r^rr 





A Destroyer 

Destroyers are swift ships, not very large, not heavily armed, not armored. They 
are used especially to destroy torpedo boats and submarines. The destroyer in 
the picture is also throwing out a smoke screen to conceal the ships behind it. 

Many were the devices for fighting the submarine — destroyers, 
huge iron nets, mine fields, depth bombs, and airplanes and 
balloons hovering above the water watching for dark spots near 
the surface. With a bravery worthy of a better cause the sub- 
marine crews plunged into the dark waters on their mission 
of destruction, but many of them met disaster and found their 
final resting place on the ocean's bed. As the summer passed 
their victims became fewer and fewer, while every shipyard in 
America and Great Britain was working day and night to replace 
the losses. By the coming of the winter it was clearly seen, even 
by the Germans, that the submarine campaign was a failure. 
By the time America was ready to transport a great army to Eu- 
rope, the menace had subsided, and not a single American troop 
ship was lost on the way from our country to Europe. 

580. Efficient Democracy. — The general beUef that a demo- 
cratic people are less capable of high efficiency than an autocratic 
government was disproved by the war. Indeed, an autocratic 
people, who act and think at the direction of superiors, may seem 



678 The World War 

eminently efficient, but a part of their energy is consumed in 
keeping screwed up to the highest pitch all the time ; also they 
lack individual initiative. A democratic people, who live and 
act under rules and laws of their own making, may be careless, 
even slovenly, in many of their ways ; but the greater is their 
reserve strength, and in time of crisis they may rise to supreme 
heights of energy and efficiency such as no autocracy can ever 
reach. Never was this fact brought out more strikingly than 
when America enlisted in the World War. Never did Prussia 
show such fine powers of organization, such dynamic energy, or 
such magnificent enthusiasm. 

Our preparations for war were on a colossal scale. The regis- 
tration of young men between the ages of twenty-one and thirty- 
one, on June 5, 1917, totaled 9,925,751 ; and later, when all other 
men between the ages of eighteen and forty-five were registered, 
the grand total footed up 24,234,021. This vast potential army 
was carefully sifted by the selective draft and only those most 
fit were called to the military camps. 

In the magnitude of our shipbuilding no other country ap- 
proached us. Ships of steel, of wood, and of concrete were built, 
and the shipyards, many of which were constructed for war 
emergency, kept up their deafening clang day and night. Before 
the end of the war the government had taken control of the 
railroads of the country, also the express companies, the tele- 
graph and telephone systems. In the towns and villages along 
the great railroad lines east and west, the people gathered daily to 
see the trainloads of boys in khaki speeding for the eastern sea- 
board to embark for the battlefields of France. 

The Liberty Loans were oversubscribed by hundreds of millions ; 
farmers redoubled their efforts to furnish an adequate food supply ; 
women and children sacrificed their time and money to aid in 
supplying the wants of the soldier boys ; men of wide business 
experience gave their time for a dollar a year to aid in the mobiliz- 
ing of resources of the nation. With scarcely a murmur the people 
accepted the meatless days and wheatless meals in order to save 



Preparations by America 679 

food for the Allied nations at war. A request by the government 
that the people refrain from using automobiles on Sundays was 
respected almost everywhere, and thus a million barrels of gaso- 
line were saved for the army.^ 

To what end did the American people rise so grandly to the 
call of the government ? Not to gain territory nor to win indem- 
nities, nor yet to make a great name in the world, nor to take 
revenge on an enemy. They did it in pursuance of an ideal ; they 
did it because they saw that human liberty was in the balance, 
that civilization was in danger, and they were ready to fight to 
the last in order to " make the world safe for democracy." 

581. The American Navy. — Under the brilUant admiral 
William S. Sims, a strong naval force arrived in British waters 
early in May, 1917. Queenstown, Ireland, was chosen as the 
American naval base and our navy found much to do. Its great- 
est work was perhaps in hunting submarines and in convoying 
troop ships and supply ships on their way to Europe. Another 
remarkable achievement was the laying of a barrage of mines 
from the coast of Norway to Scotland, a distance of more than 
two hundred miles. It contained 80,000 mines. Its purpose was 
to hinder submarines from reaching the Atlantic. 

Our naval losses in the war were slight. Concerning our navy 
a leading British naval expert said : " When the war is over we 
can form some conception of the debt that we owe to the Amer- 
ican navy for the manner in which it has cooperated, not only in 
connection with convoj^ system, but in fighting the subm^arines. " 

582 . Transporting the Army. — The transplanting of our A. E. F. 
(American Expeditionary Force) to the coast of France was the 
greatest movement of its kind in history. The youthful soldier, 
after a brief training in camp, was sent to an eastern seaport, 
where he embarked with thousands of his fellows upon the 

1 In Canada a similar request was generally disregarded bj' the people. It is 
a notable fact, also, that while the American people accepted the draft law without 
asking to vote on it, it required more than a year in Canada and in Great Britain to 
persuade the people that such a law was necessary. In Australia a proposed draft 
law was twice defeated by vote of the people. 



68o The World War 

stormy Atlantic. It was a wonderful experience, this voyage 
to the lands of their ancestors. Great numbers of the young 
soldiers had never been far from home. Many were educated, 
and to them the voyage was an opening to wonderful vistas of 
what they had known only in books and song and story. Many of 
them were illiterate, and to them Europe had meant an unknown 
somewhere far beyond the seas. To all the voyage was a strange 
and wonderful chapter in life's experience never to be forgotten. 

The American ships proved inadequate to transport so great 
an army, and many were leased from the British. ^ The German 
and Austrian ships interned in American waters at the beginning 
of the war, numbering more than a hundred, were also pressed 
into the service. ^ 

General John J. Pershing was appointed commander in chief 
of the A. E. F., and soon proved himself a strong and able leader. 
He arrived in England on June 6, 1917, and soon proceeded to 
France. In both countries he was received with great demonstra- 
tions of joy, but still greater was the joy when later in the same 
month our first battle troops arrived in France. Month by month 
the number carried '* over there " by the transports increased 
until in mid-summer, 1918, it reached 300,000 a month. When 
the war closed more than two million American soldiers had been 
landed in France. 

1 The transports that carried our men and their supplies abroad were painted 
in bizarre designs of various colors, to "camouflage" or conceal the outline of the 
ship. The painting of the ships was done under the direction of an artist, and so 
effective was the device that it was almost impossible to perceive the ship more than 
a mile away. Similar camouflage was used on cannon, motor cars, and buildings 
near the battle fronts on land. At night no lights were allowed aboard ship lest 
the whereabouts of the transport be discovered by the enemy. Immense piers 
and warehouses were built by American engineers at Brest and St. Nazaire on the 
French coast, where the troops and supplies were landed. 

2 Among these was the German Valerland, one of the largest steamships ever 
built. This great vessel, rechristened the Leviathan, carried as many as 12,000 
American soldiers in a single voyage. The ships went in flotillas, small groups, and 
were carefully guarded by destroyers. One or two British transports with American 
soldiers on board fell victims to the submarines; but no American transport was 
lost on the outward voyage. A few " empties" were lost on the return voyage when 
less carefully guarded. 




Landing American Troops and Supplies in France 



Preparations by America 



68i 



Our task of preparation was not ended with tlie landing of the 
soldiers in France. In addition to the soldiers, thousands of skilled 
workmen and common laborers were sent across. Hundreds of 
buildings were erected on French soil by American men and 
money, in which to receive our troops ; great training camps were 
constructed and hundreds of miles of railroads were built. Food 
supplies, machinery, munitions of war, were sent to France from 
America in great and increasing quantities. Our troops also were 
given their final training in France under French and British 




Machine Guns 

This picture shows American soldiers in France being instructed by a British officer 

in the use of a machine gun. The metal helmets worn by the soldiers were used in 

all the armies for protection against shrapnel. 



officers. Here, behind the battle lines and often in hearing of the 
great guns in actual combat, our boys received their final instruc- 
tions. In trench warfare, in bombing, in range finding, in artil- 
lery and machine gun fire, and in many other things they were 
thoroughly drilled by experts. And when ready for battle, they 
proved to be most efficient soldiers. The European armies, 

EL. M. T. — 44 



682 The World War 

though more experienced, were jaded and weary with long service. 
Many of the soldiers were middle-aged or elderly men, or had 
recovered from wounds in the hospitals. The Americans were 
young, dashing, virile, and eager for the fray. 



II. The Great Final Drive: End of the War 

583. The German Situation. — At the beginning of the year 
191 8 German hopes of ultimate victory seemed as high as 
ever. It is true that the submarine campaign had waned and 
that its failure could be foreseen ; also that the Americans 
were arriving in ever-increasing numbers, that the Canadians 
had captured Vimy (ve-me') Ridge, thought to be impreg- 
nable, that the British had pressed back the German line on 
the Western Front for many miles, that one British army had 
beaten the Turks in Mesopotamia and another had captured 
Jerusalem and was soon to be master of Palestine. Great Britain 
alone, at this time, was making shells at the rate of four hundred 
carloads a day. These were discouraging facts to the Central 
Powers, but there was much on their side of the balance sheet. 

Italy had been almost paralyzed by the great Austro-German 
drive of October-November, 1917 ; Serbia and most of Roumania 
had been conquered ; and, above all, terms had been made with 
turbulent Russia. 

Germany had arranged an armistice with Bolshevist Russia 
before the close of 19 17, to be followed in March, 19 18, by peace 
treaties with Russia and Roumania most humiliating to those 
countries. By these treaties Roumania and large parts of Russia 
became practically subject to German control, but both were 
powerless and could do nothing but accept the degrading terms. 
Germany in the early spring of 191 8 determined on her greatest 
gamble. She saw that in order to win she must do so quickly, 
that year, before the Americans could arrive in such numbers as 
to turn the tide against her. She drew great numbers of her troops 
from Russia, added them to her already large army on the Western 



The Final Drive 683 

Front, and made ready for the greatest assauh of the whole war. 
The winter in Germany was one of prodigious activity. Enormous 
stores of munitions were stacked up on the Western Front and every 
unit of the army was drilled to the highest degree of efficiency. 

584. Trembling in the Balance. — The Allies were convinced 
that the enemy was massing his forces for a supreme test that 
would probably prove final and decisive, but whether he would 
strike first for Paris or for the Channel ports was uncertain. It 
, was certain that the German army in the west, greatly augmented 
from Russia, was now stronger than the Allied armies oppos- 
ing it. The blow would soon fall ; the American army was still 
in the making ; and it was plain that a feeling of dread pervaded 
the whole Allied world. 

On March 21 the great offensive began. Commanded by their 
ablest leaders, Hindenburg and Lu'dendorff, the Germans, after 
a terrific bombardment of five hours, swept forward, wave after 
wave, on a fifty-mile front. Thus began the battle of Pic'ardy, 
the greatest military campaign in the world's history. The chief 
attack was made on the Fifth British army. Thousands of great 
guns poured their destructive fire into the British lines. The 
front line of the British soon broke and retreated to their second 
line of defense. The next day the second line was broken, and 
even a wide gap torn in the third line. The onrush continued 
for eight days before French and British reenforcements definitely 
checked the enemy within a few miles of the important city of 
Amiens. 

In this first great dash the Germans had captured 90,000 
prisoners and 1300 heavy guns and had advanced at some points 
thirty-five miles. But the German high command was not pleased 
with the victory. They had won much territory and had inflicted 
great losses on the enemy, but they had lost more heavily than 
the Allies in killed and wounded, they were far from their base 
of supplies, and, most significant of all, during the last days they 
had met most determined resistance which was sure to increase 
as the days and weeks passed. 



684 



The World War 



During the last days of this first phase of the German offen- 
sive the Allies made a move which was to prove of unmeasured 
importance in winning a final victory — they chose a commander 
in chief of all the Allied armies in the world. The great honor 
and great burden fell on Ferdinand Foch (fosh), whom General 

Joffre, after the battle 
of the Marne, pro- 
claimed " the greatest 
strategist in Europe." 
Marshal Foch had 
reached the age of 
sixty-seven, had seen 
service in the Franco- 
Prussian war, and had 
written several books 
on military science. 
Before his appoint- 
ment the Allied armies 
had been greatly handi- 
capped by a divided 
command, but from 
this time till the end 
of the war they were 
to move on all fronts 
at the direction of this 
one master mind. 
585. German Advance Continued. — On March 29, the day of 
his appointment, Marshal Foch declared that the lines would hold. 
The French premier, Clemenceau (kla-maN-s6') , made an in- 
spection a few days later and declared the same thing. The 
Allied world was cheered by these reports. But the danger 
had not passed. Another terrific German drive began on April 9, 
to the north of Picardy, and it was continued throughout the 
month. The new attack was almost if not fully as strong as the' 
first one. Day after day the battle raged with tremendous fury. 




Marshal Foch 



The Final Drive 685 

The Germans gained more miles of territory and took thousands 
of prisoners. But their own losses were terrible and they gained 
no real advantage. The Allied lines were unbroken. 

Then came a pause of nearly a month while both sides were 
preparing for another conflict. It began on May 27 and 
in some respects was the most ferocious of all the German 
assaults. Within a few days the invaders had reached the 
Marne River and at one point had crossed it. They were now 
within forty miles of Paris. The Allied world was dismayed. 
The goal of the enemy seemed almost won. Ten miles more of 
advance and the Germans could reach the French capital with 
their great guns. They could throw thousands of shells into 
Paris and destroy the city at their leisure. ^ Marshal Foch knew 
this, but he made little effort to stop the German drive until it 
had almost reached the danger line. His object was to save his 
men and let the invaders push their way at heavy cost gradually 
farther and farther from their base, and then to strike with 
all the cumulated power that he had been gathering for the 
purpose. 

586. The Tiurn of the Tide. — It was at this time that the 
Americans as separate tpiits first met the Germans in battle. 
Two divisions of the regular army, including soldiers and marines, 
rushed to the crossing of the Marne at Chateau-Thierry (sha-to'- 
ty ar-re') , where they passed a few French divisions broken and 
in full retreat. They met the Germans in force and after a des- 
perate encounter (June 4) drove them back across the river. 
On June 10 the Americans began their famous assault through 
Belleau (bel-l6') Wood, sweeping it clear of the enemy in a 
fierce two-day drive. From this time the Germans were never 
permitted to forget that the Americans had arrived at the front. 
Few of these American boys had ever been in battle, but at Belleau 

1 The Germans were already bombarding Paris at intervals with two or three 
great guns at a distance of 76 miles. But because of the small number of such 
long-range guns, and because the distance made accurate aim impossible, the bom- 
bardment had httle effect. 



686 



The World War 




Devastated Village near Belleau Wood 
Part of the battlefield where American marines met the Germans. 



Wood and elsewhere they fought with such courage, dash, and 
spirit as to infuse new life into the French and British armies. 

Twice again the great German army threw its gigantic weight 
against the Allied lines, but they held firm and the efforts were 
in vain. Before the last of these mighty assaults, July 15, on a 
sixty-mile front, Foch had discovered through scouts the exact 
moment when the enemy intended to open with his artillery, and 
he opened with his own an hour earlier. During three days the 
Germans put forth all their strength, but they were held in their 
tracks or even in places pushed back. The fact is, the strength 
of the German army was rapidly waning, its best troops had been 
sacrificed. Its hour had struck and it proved also the knell of 
the German Empire. The great counter offensive was about 
to begin. The tide of battle had turned. 

587. War in the Air. — Most romantic of all the stories of 
the war is that which tells of the battles in the air. No pre- 



War in the Air ^87 

vious war presents a record of having carried the strife above 
the clouds. Nothing in the annals of human warfare is more 
daring and spectacular, more grandly heroic, than this aerial com- 
bat, which characterized the World War from beginning to end. 

With an utter defiance of danger and death the youthful soldier 
soars in the azure sky in search of an antagonist on a mission the 
same as his own. Here among the clouds, perhaps a thousand 
yards above the raging battle below, he meets his foe and the 
two engage in a duel to the death. They sail round and round, 
or one darts beneath or soars above the other, each striving for 
the opportunity to pour into the other a deadly machine gun 
volley. At length one is hit ; his airplane bursts into flames and 
plunges to earth a burning wreck. The victor returns to his 
base to receive the plaudits of his fellows, or flies away in search 
of another victim. 

The airman who brought down as many as five enemy planes, 
each attested by three witnesses, is called an ace. The most 
famous of the American aces were Lieutenant Lufberry, who was 
killed in action, and Lieutenant Rickenbacker, who lived through 
the war. Fonck and Guynemer (gen-mer') held the highest record 
among the French aces. More than seventy-five air victories 
were credited to Fonck, six in a single day. At one time he won 
three victories within a few minutes, and two of the victims proved 
to be the two leading aces of the German army. 

Before America entered the war neither side had much advan- 
tage over the other in the air, but the addition of our aircraft 
to that of the Allies gradually gave them a preponderance over 
the enemy. After months of experimenting our experts de- 
veloped the Liberty motor, which proved to be an excellent aircraft 
engine capable of rapid manufacture in large quantities. Before 
the close of the war we had delivered 15,000 airplanes for service 
(though scarcely 2000 had been sent to France) and many 
thousands more were in course of construction. Great numbers 
of our young men went into training in the aviation fields, and 
many of them saw actual service at the front. The American 



688 The World War 

aviators (most of them flying in AUied planes), during the last half 
year of the war, brought down more than five hundred enemy planes 
besides dropping many tons of bombs within the enemy's lines. 

On March 23 and 24, 1918, a few days after the great German 
drive began, occurred the greatest of air battles. Far above the 
tremendous battle that was raging on the land the air fighters 
met their antagonists, single-handed or in squadrons, and with 
marvelous daring engaged in their death duels. With many 
it was their last engagement. Their shattered planes and their 
mangled bodies Were strewn over the battle ground. Others were 
victorious and lived to tell the story. The Allies had the clear 
advantage and by the end of the second day the Germans were 
driven from the air. 

588. Surrender of Bulgaria, Turkey, and Austria. — Before 
returning to the final- scenes on the Western Front let us take a 
view of the war in other lands. Constantine, the pro-German 
king of Greece, had been forced to abdicate his throne, and his 
successor was aiding the Allies. In September, 19 18, General 
Foch ordered the Allied army stationed at Salonica (sec. 570) to 
make an assault on Bulgaria. The Bulgarian king, Ferdinand, 
was utterly unable to stem the tide. He called frantically on 
Germany for promised aid, but the adverse tide had set against 
Germany also, and she could do nothing. Bulgaria surrendered 
abjectly to the Allies on September 29, and a few days later 
Ferdinand abdicated the throne. Turkey and the Orient were 
thus cut off entirely from the Central Powers. 

Farther east .great things were happening. General Allenby, 
after capturing Jerusalem in December, 1917, had remained com- 
paratively inactive for many months; but by September, 191 8, 
he was again ready to strike. He was aided by an army from 
Hedjaz (hej-az') and other parts of Arabia. A Turkish army of 
100,000 men faced him on the north. The assault was made on 
September 18, and in five days the Turkish army was utterly 
destroyed, 70,000 of its numbers being made prisoners. Allenby 
pushed north to Asia Minor and cut off from Europe the only 



End of the War 689 

remaining Turkish army, stationed in Mesopotamia. Turkey was 
utterly crushed. She sued for peace. On October 3 1 a pact was 
signed that put Turkey out of the war aiid marked the downfall 
of the Turkish Empire, which had disturbed the peace of Europe 
for half a thousand years. 

Austria was the next to crumble beneath the sledgehammer 
blows of the Allied armies. In June, 1918, Austria had attempted 
a mighty drive on the Italian army in the valley of the Piave ; it 
lasted but a few days when it collapsed and the offensive power 
of the Dual Monarchy was broken. Four inactive months passed, 
and then the Italians, ordered by Marshal Foch, made a vigorous 
forward movement (October 24) on the entire front from the sea 
to the Alps. After a few days' resistance the Austrians broke 
into disorderly flight. In three days a hundred thousand of 
them were captured by the onrushing Italians. In despair the 
Austrian rulers cried for peace, and on November 4 they sur- 
rendered to the Allies. 

Already the various races composing the Dual Monarchy — 
the Hungarians, the Jugo-Slavs, the Bohemians, and others — 
hungry and war-weary, had revolted against the emperor and 
declared themselves independent. Austria-Hungary was literally 
torn to pieces. In Austria itself a republic was set up, the de- 
posed Emperor Charles left the country a few months later, and 
thus fell the House of Hapsburg. It had been for many centuries 
one of the most conspicuous royal dynasties in Europe. ' 

589. Foch Takes the Offensive. — We left the opposing 
armies on the Western Front at the moment of the turning 
of the tide. The Germans between March 21 and the middle of 
July had rnade the most gigantic offensive campaign known to 
history ; they had won an extensive country, had captured great 
stores of munitions and many thousands of men, but they had 
not won their goal. They could not reach the sea, nor take 
Paris, nor split the Allied armies asunder. It was now too late. 
Most of the German reserves had been used up ; no longer could 
Germany draw men from the Russian front. 



690 The World War 

On the other hand, the Allies, having saved their armies from 
destruction by prudent retreat, were now gathering strength day 
b}" day, chiefly through reenforcements from America. On the 
1 8th of July the counter offensive was begun. On a front of 
twenty-eight miles the French and Americans made a grand 
assault. The Germans were taken by surprise. They defended 
their position with desperate valor, but were forced back sev- 
eral miles. When the attack slowed up another was made by 
the French and British farther to the west ; it was equally 
successful. 

Marshal Foch had decided to give the enemy no rest. He 
struck here and there all along the battle line, often in most un- 
expected places, giving the enemy no opportunity to shift his 
forces frOm one point to another. With swarms of airplanes 
hovering overhead and preceded by hundreds of great lumbering 
tanks, the infantry and artillery moved forward with irresistible 
momentum. On August 8 the British army in Picardy, after 
months of reorganization following their defeat in March, made 
a great forward movement on a forty-mile front. Throughout 
the whole line they were successful at all points and by the even- 
ing of the next day the}^ had progressed fifteen miles and captured 
thousands of prisoners. By the end of August the Germans had 
lost all the land they had gained in their spring drive. On the 
6th of September the whole Allied front, a hundred miles long, 
moved forward like a tidal wave. The Germans fell back every- 
where. City after city, hundreds of villages they had captured, 
hills and strongholds of all kinds, they reluctantly yielded to the 
advancing foe. On September 12 the American army under Gen- 
eral Pershing took the St. Mihiel (saN me-yel') salient and 16,000 
prisoners. By the i8th of October the famous " Hindenburg line " 
had been broken and the Belgian coast, including the German 
submarine base, had been retaken by the Allies. 

590. America's Greatest Battle. — One of the outstanding 
features of this colossal campaign was the battle of the Meuse- 
Argonne (milz'-ar-gon'), a contest between Americans and Ger- 



America's Greatest Battle 



691 



mans. It was America's greatest battle, far surpassing Gettys- 
burg, Spottsjdvania, or Shiloh. 

The Germans, though driven back from the valleys of the 
Marne and lower Aisne rivers, still occupied the very important 
valley of the Meuse River north of Verdun and held the territory 
westward of that river through the Forest of Argonne, a dis- 
tance of nearly twenty miles. It was of immense importance to 
the Germans to hold this section because it guarded the trunk 
railway line through 
Sedan, one of the only 
two railways by which 
all the German armies 
in France and Belgium 
were supplied, and 
over which flight was 
necessary in case of 
complete disaster. 
Furthermore the cap- 
ture of this region by 
the Allies would open 
the way to the famous 
iron mines of Lorraine 
from which Germany 
secured most of her 
iron for war purposes. 

The Americans un- 
der General Pershing 
confronted the Ger- 
man army along this 

sector. It was the most difficult battle ground in France — hills, 
forests, swamps, and ravines. For four years the Germans had 
occupied it and had fortified it with cement works and barbed 
wire as no other part of the Western Front was fortified. It was 
here that Foch ordered a general advance to be carried out under 
General Pershing. The Americans had one great advantage — 




General Pershing 



692 The World War 

superiority of numbers ; but this did not count greatly owing to 
the formidable defenses behind which the Germans fought, and 
to the fact that the majority of the Americans had never been 
under lire. 

The great battle began on September 26 on a front of nearly 
twenty miles. The preliminary artillery bombardment from the 
American side was tremendous beyond description. It is said 
that the amount of ammunition consumed in this bombardment 
was greater than all that was consumed in the whole four years 
of our Civil War. Next came the mighty rush of the American 
army. The Germans fell back fighting desperately. Within three 
days the Americans had in some places captured their defenses 
to a depth of seven miles. The drive then slowly died down till 
October 4,- when it was resumed with great vigor, and was con- 
tinued to the end of the month. 

The- greatest obstacle encountered by the Americans was the 
deadly machine guns. These in great numbers were hidden in 
bushes, concrete emplacements, or on the hilltops, usually in 
" nests " with three or four men in each nest. These men, left 
behind to protect the retreating army, often fought to the death ; 
and thousands of the American soldiers fell before their deadly 
aim. 

By the first of November the German spirit was broken. The 
Americans rushed on, driving the enemy from all his defenses. By 
the 7th of November they had reached Sedan, made famous in 
1870 by the great French surrender (sec. 495). The railroad 
system was cut. The goal of the campaign was achieved. Still 
onward the Americans were ready to move, into the Lorraine 
iron region, when suddenly on November 11 all hostilities came 
to an end with the armistice. 

The battle of the Meuse-Argonne was one of the great battles 
of the war and one of the most important. But for this battle 
the Germans would no doubt have held their position during the 
coming winter. The war would have been prolonged into the next 
year, or there would have been a negotiated peace instead of a 



End of the War 



693 




»-»•» \ -^ 






'•■-^ 




Heroes of the Meuse-Argonne 

From an ofBcial army photograph. Soldiers of the First Division A. E. F., near the 

Meuse River, November g, igiS. This division had twice been in line during the 

Meuse-Argonne battle, besides taking part in previous battles. 



peace by surrender. Nearly 800,000 Americans were engaged 
in this gigantic battle, but only about 300,000 at any one time. 
The divisions, as they became wear}^ and war- torn, were replaced 
by fresh divisions. Our losses in killed and wounded were very 
heavy, chiefl}- through the machine guns. The American losses 
in this battle were greater, it is estimated, than the entire force 
commanded by Napoleon at Waterloo-, or by Meade at Gettys- 
burg. In one great cemetery among the Argonne hills sleep 
30,000 American slain. Our armj^ lost about 4000 by capture, 
while the}'' captured 26,059 of the enemy. 

591. Fall of the German Empire ; the Armistice. — For some 
weeks before the close of hostilities the Germans had foreseen the 
outcome and had been making frantic efforts to bring about an 
armistice. Several notes passed between the German chancellor 
and President Wilson through the medium of the Swiss govern- 



694 The World War ^ 

ment. To an offer of the chanceUor that Germany was ready- 
to make peace on terms laid down in Wilson's speech of the 
preceding January, containing the famous Fourteen Points, 
the President replied (Oct. 14) that an armistice must provide 
for the absolute military supremacy of the United States and its 
allies. He charged the Germans with continuing their wanton 
destruction and inhuman acts on land and sea and called for the 
abolition of every " arbitrary power that could separately, se- 
cretly, and of its single choice, disturb the peace of the world," 
and flatly declared that the kaiser's government was of this 
nature. This uncompromising reply met with hearty approval 
in ail the Allied countries ; and it quickly put a stop to the wanton 
destruction by the German armies. 

Early in November the German war lords were brought to a 
realization of the gravity of the situation by rebellious uprisings 
of the people throughout the empire. These began in the navy. 
The nien of the navy rebelled when ordered to make a final dash 
against the Allied fleets. They knew it meant certain death, and 
they refused to give their lives in a dying cause. The rebellion 
spread to Hamburg, Bremen, and other cities. The people 
throughout the empire were seething with resentment against 
the authorities and demanding immediate peace. And peace 
came on the eleventh of November, one of the great days in the 
world's history. The armistice was signed at the eleventh hour 
on the eleventh day of the eleventh month of the year, — the 
great guns ceased to roar and silence reigned over the far-flung 
battle front. 

Two days before the armistice the German kaiser abandoned 
his army and his people and fled into Holland, as did also his son, 
the crown prince. The German Empire, after an existence of 
forty-eight years, was overthrown by the people. A provisional 
government of a republican form was set up in Germany. 

The armistice meant little else than surrender. Germany 
was obliged to agree, among other things, to give up Alsace- 
Lorraine, to withdraw her armies from France, Belgium, Russia, 



End of the War 695 

and other lands, to surrender all her submarines and most of her 
battle fleet, also great numbers of cannon, machine guns, air- 
planes, cars, locomotives, and motor trucks, to renounce her 
recent treaties with Russia and Roumania, and to pay an incal- 
culable sum of money to repair war damages in Belgium, France, 
and other countries. 

SmE Talks 

The Mythical X-Army. — The game of war is many-sided. With 
all its horrors it has its tricks and amusing features. One of the most 
amusing and successful tricks of the war was played by certain young 
American officers in the fall of 1918'when the great drive of the Allies 
was at its height. These men created a mythical army and with it 
they held at bay for several weeks a large section of the German army. 

It became known to the Americans that the Germans were expecting 
an attack in the sector east of Verdun, and to meet the expected 
attack five fresh German divisions, the best of their reserves, were 
stationed there. The Yankees did not wish to disappoint them, but 
as all the Allied forces from Switzerland to the sea were engaged, it 
was found necessary to create an imaginary army. It was well known 
that if the Germans discovered that this sector was not a danger point, 
the reserves would quickly be thrown into battle elsewhere. To prevent 
this, to keep them idle, and thus to prevent the German resistance from 
being strengthened, the scheme was devised; and it worked admirably. 

The headquarters of the " X-army " consisted of a wireless station 
in a clump of woods near Verdun. From this station orders were sent 
out to the various divisions of the " army " in such a code as the enemy 
would be able to interpret. A message was sent to all the other wireless 
stations in the army area (none of which existed) directing that they 
be on the alert for further orders, but that they must not answer lest 
the enemy discover their whereabouts. Messages were sent to imagi- 
nary officers directing them to hold the divisions in readiness for the 
assault on the enemy which was soon to be made. One message called 
for additional copies of the plan of the coming battle. 

The telephone was also freely used. The telephone squad would 
gossip at night about the great expectations of their army, about 
reinforcements and preparations for the coming attack, and to make sure 
that the enemy would be able to " listen in " they crawled out in the 
darkness of No Man's Land and hooked an American wire on a German 
barbed wire. 

The Germans were completely deceived by this clever Yankee trick. 



696 The World War 

The mythical army began operations on October 22, and two days later 
a swarm of German airplanes were sent to ferret out its location. Ger- 
man prisoners captured by the French reported that the Germans were 
reenforcing the main line, massing artillery, and were exerting extreme 
watchfulness in the belief that an attack was about to be made. So 
they continued until November 11, when the armistice was signed. 
The trick was amusing but it had a serious meaning also. It kept out 
of the final conflict many thousands of German soldiers and thus, per- 
haps, it hastened the end and saved hundreds if not thousands of lives 
on both sides. 

A Modem Hero. — In August, 1914, a towheaded English youth in 
the early twenties, undersized and frail of body, a graduate of Oxford 
University, who had spent several years in the study of archaeology in the 
Orient, attempted to enlist in the British army as a private. The board 
of examiners rejected him with, " Run home to your mother, my boy, 
and wait till the next war." Four years later the same youth, having 
led 200,000 men in battle, having played a great part in establishing an 
Arabian king on his throne and in winning the World War, refused a 
knighthood from the British crown, the Victoria Cross, and a general- 
ship in the army. 

The name of the young man is Thomas Lawrence. After his re- 
jection by the board he went back to the Orient and renewed his ac- 
quaintance with the Arabian people, their life and language. Then a 
great thought came to young Lawrence — nothing less than arousing 
the Arabians against Turkish rule, under which they had chafed for 
five hundred years, and thus rendering a priceless service to the Allies 
in the World War. He donned the native Arabian costume, lived and 
ate with the Bed'ouins, and spent many months in allaying the deadly 
feuds among the tribes and in arousing the country against the Turks. 

For ages these Bedouin tribes had engaged in deadly feuds with one 
another. One old chief (or sheik, as they are called), who became a 
great friend of Lawrence, had led a hundred expeditions and had slain 
scores of men with his own hand. His wrath against the Turks waxed 
fierce. One day he suddenly remembered that he was wearing a set of 
false teeth made by a Turkish dentist. Taking them from his mouth 
with an appropriate Mohammedan oath, he dashed them to pieces on 
a rock. Thereafter for two months he lived on rice and milk until an 
English dentist from Egypt could be secured to replace the lost molars. 

Lawrence became intimately associated with Hussein (hoo-san'), 
the governor of Mecca, a descendant of the prophet Mohammed of the 
thirty-sixth generation. Lawrence did much in making Hussein the 
independent king of Hedjaz (hej-az'), and much also for Feisal (fa-sal'), 



End of the War 697 

the son of Hussein, in setting up a claim to the kingship of Syria. 
Hussein is now considered the ofi&cial head of all the millions of Moslems 
in the world. He has adopted many modern customs, but at heart he 
is a true Bedouin and loves to roam the desert astride a mule. He owns 
the finest stable of mules in the world. 

With wonderful skill and tact young Lawrence appealed to the 
patriotism of the desert tribes, and it was he above all others who created 
the Arabian War of Liberation. When General AUenby, having cap- 
tured Jerusalem, moved northward toward Damascus, he was joined 
by a great Arabian army under the general leadership of Thomas 
Lawrence, to whom is due in large part the Allied victory over Turkey, 
and hence the winning of the war in the Orient. 

Questions and Topics. — I. Why are the American people more 
than most peoples devoted to peace? In what way, in your opinion, 
was Germany's submarine campaign a serious blunder? Why is a 
democracy more eflacient in time of crisis than any other form of 
government? What did the American navy do in the war? Describe 
the transporting of our army to France ; our preparations in France ; 
war in the air. 

II. Describe the German drive in the spring of 1918; the turn of 
the tide. Why did Bulgaria, Turkey, and Austria agree to make a 
separate peace? Describe the greatest battle in American history; 
the fall of the Germa,n Empire. What sort of government did the 
German people set up? Describe the signing of and contents of the 
armistice. What is an armistice? 

Events and Dates. — The United States declares war on Germany, 
April 6, 1917. Two million American troops landed in France, 1917- 
1918. Great German drive on Western Front begins March 21, 1918. 
Turning of the tide, July 18. Surrender of Bulgaria on September 
29; of Turkey, October 31 ; of Austria, November 4. Armistice with 
Germany signed November 11, 1918. 

For Further Reading. — Histories of the war. Bassett, Our War with 
Germany. Palmer, Our Greatest Battle. 



EL. M. T. — 45 



CHAPTER XLIX 
RESULTS OF THE WORLD WAR 

I. The Peace Treaties 

592. Scope of the War. — The time will doubtless come when 
the German people will see what all the rest of the world knows, 
namely, that the World War was " made in Germany " and that 
it came through no necessity, but solely through selfish ambition, 
not of the whole people, but of an aristocratic military class that 
dominated the empire. Germany might have won, without war. 
in a few more decades, almost all that she aspired to. She had 
made marvelous progress in manufacturing and science ; her 
goods were sold and eagerly bought the world around ; she had 
great possessions in Africa and concessions in Turkey ; she might 
have eventually absorbed Holland and even the Austrian Empire ; 
she had in forty years won a wonderful standing among the powers 
of the world, and her prestige was increasing every day. Germany 
threw away the opportunities before her, and staked her life on 
a throw of the dice — and lost. 

All other wars in historic times are dwarfed in comparison with 
this stupendous human conflict. The losses in human life and 
treasure were great beyond comparison.^ 

1 Figures compiled from different sources do not fully agree, and absolute ac- 
curacy can never be attained. The following statistics are perhaps as nearly 
accurate as possible. About 60,000,000 men were mobilized on both sides. Of 
these about 20,000,000 of the Central Powers and 25,000,000 of the Allies were 
under arms. Those killed in battle or died of wounds numbered 7,800,000 ; other 
deaths caused by the war (starvation, exposure, and massacre) reached nine mil- 
lion, making a total of 16,800,000 deaths caused by the war. In addition, six 
million wounded men are permanently disabled. Of the men engaged about 16% 
were killed (one for every 7600 shots fired) and nearly 40% wounded. Of the 
more than two million American soldiers sent to France, more than half were 

698 



The Peace Treaties 699 

The nations at war comprised almost the entire world. In 
Europe the only neutrals were Spain, Switzerland, Holland, and 
the three Scandinavian countries. Austraha, nearly all of Asia 
and Africa, most of North America, and parts of South America 
were involved in the mighty struggle. 

The changes in world affairs brought about by the war can be 
reckoned thus far only in part. Three great empires, Russia, 
Austria, and Germany, ceased to exist as empires, and two of 
them, Russia and Austria, were literally torn to pieces. The 
emperors of all three lost their thrones. The kings of Greece 
and of Bulgaria were forced to abdicate and flee from their re- 
spective countries. The rearranging of national boundary lines 
and the determining of the form of government for each nation 
proved to be a long and difficult process. 

The devastation wrought by the war was incalculable. Cities 
and villages were ruined or utterly destroyed over thousands 
of square miles. Every town and village in warring Europe 
mourned its unreturning brave. Widows and fatherless children 
numbered millions. For a half century to come hundreds of 
thousands of maimed and crippled men will be seen plodding 
the streets of the cities of Europe. Such was the human wreck- 
age cast up by the great storm. But with all this, when the news 
of the armistice was flashed over the world, the rejoicing in the 
Allied countries was unrestrained in its enthusiasm. 

593. Conditions in Europe. — ^ The signing of the armistice 
brought the end of hostilities on the battlefield, but the enormous 
devastation wrought by the war stood out in greater relief on 
this account. While the armies were fighting the world's atten- 
tion was centered on the battle front ; with the coming of peace 
the awful havoc in the trail of the armies became the more ap- 
parent. The devastated regions were almost entirely in the 

engaged in battle, 50,000 were killed or died of wounds, 58,000 died of disease, and 
more than 200,000 were wounded. The losses of the Allies on the sea were about 
5000 vessels of all classes, aggregating 15,000,000 tons. Eight million horses, of 
which about half were killed, were used in the war. The airplanes numbered 
240,000, of which 75,000 were destroyed. 



700 



Results of the World War 



Allied countries. It is a remarkable fact that the side that lost 
the war had been the aggressor and the side that won had scarcely 
stepped foot on enemy soil during the whole course of the conflict. 
The invasion of any country by an army means always much 
damage to property, but the German armies went beyond the 




Beginning of Reconstruction in a Belgian Village 

The little restaurant has been built in the midst of the ruins of war. The French 
sign above the door, ^ la Tete d'Or, means "The Gold Head." The same words 
in the Flemish language appear in the sign on the end of the roof, In het Gouden 
Hoofd. Belgium, it will be remembered, is a bilingual country (sec. 550). At 
the street corner is a half-obliterated sign in German, a reminder of the recent 
enemy occupation. 



necessity of the case in their ruthless plunder and destruction. 
A great section of northern France was left uninhabitable, and 
in many cities the factories were systematically looted. Great 
parts of Belgium, Poland, Roumania, Serbia, and Italy were over- 
run by invading armies and in every instance the devastation 
was frightful. The homes of millions of people were robbed or 
destroyed, business was paralyzed, farms ruined by bursting 
shells and trampling armies ; in some districts even the vines and 
fruit trees were wantonly cut down. Great numbers of people 



The Peace Treaties 701 

died of starvation and exposure, and millions that survived were 
broken in health for want of proper food, clothing, and shelter. 
Mr. Herbert Hoover, the American food administrator, returning 
from Europe in December, 1919, more than a year after the 
armistice, reported that among the Jugo-Slavs alone there were 
500,000 fatherless children, of whom 150,000 were absolutely 
destitute. So great is the devastation over thousands of square 
miles that many years must pass before normal conditions can be 
restored. 

As so many men had for four years been engaged in war in- 
stead of productive industry, there was a world-wide shortage 
of food, clothing, coal, and other things. In carrying on the 
war, much paper money was issued. For these reasons prices 
rose. Wages rose also, but there was much unrest among work- 
men, and many strikes. 

594. The Peace Conference. — The great problems growing 
out of the war were to be settled by a congress of the nations held 
in Paris and Versailles in the early months of 19 19. Here were 
gathered the greatest political leaders of the world — Lloyd 
George, premier of Great Britain, Orlando, premier of Italy, 
Clemenceau, the head of the French cabinet, and President Wilson 
of the United States. These were known as the " Big Four." 
Each of these countries and Japan had five delegates, and the 
delegates were accompanied by many expert assistants. In all 
thirty-two nations were represented in the congress.^ The de- 
feated nations, neutral nations, and Russia were not represented. 

A marked contrast is notable between this congress and the 
Congress of Vienna of 18 15 (sec. 435). The Congress of Vienna 
was made up almost wholly of emperors, kings, and great nobles ; 
in the Congress of Paris there was not a crowned head and only 
one member of noble rank. The difference shows a wonderful 

1 Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, British Empire (also, separately, Australia, Canada, 
India, New Zealand, South Africa), China, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Ecuador, France, 
Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Hedjaz, Honduras, Italy, Japan, Jugoslavia, Liberia, 
Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Roumania, Siam, United States, 
and Uruguay. 



702 Results of the World War 

change in the world's government. It means that in the hundred 
years since the Congress of Vienna the government of the nations 
has passed from the hands of royal rulers to the hands of the 
people. 

Never before had a body of men met with a responsibility 
so great as that devolving on this Peace Conference at Paris. 
It had to grapple not only with the many problems of peace 
terms for ending the present war — the adjusting of boundaries, 
the establishing of new nations, the disposition of the German 
colonies, and many other issues — but also with the still greater 
problem of the future conduct of the nations in their relations 
with one another. 

Many important compromises and decisions were made practi- 
cally by the " Big Four," and later ratified at full meetings of the 
conference. Some of the compromises were hard to make. Pres- 
ident Wilson objected to the secret treaties by which Great 
Britain and France had promised to Italy and Japan certain re- 
' wards in the day of settlement ; but these countries insisted that 
the treaties were binding -and could be altered only by mutual 
agreement. It was difficult indeed for the powers to yield their 
old notions of military protection and secret diplomacy for the 
American " dreams and ideals." But at many points they did 
yield to the great strength of the American position, which lay 
largely in the fact that we had acted from motives of altruism 
and now asked for no territorial gains. It was chiefly through the 
insistence of Wilson that the League of Nations was embodied 
in the treaty, and that France was dissuaded from annexing all 
German territory west of the Rhine. And when Italy laid claim 
to Fiume (fyoo'ma) on the eastern shore of the Adriatic, a city 
needed by the Jugo-Slavs as their natural outlet, Wilson made 
a determined stand against the seizure. 

595. The Peace Treaties. — The treaty with Germany as 
finally agreed to is made up of many compromises. A few of its 
most important points are as follows: (i) A constitution is pro- 
vided for a League of Nations with covenants designed to pre- 



The Peace Treaties 



703 



vent future wars of aggression. (2) Alsace-Lorraine, which 
was taken from France by Germany in 1870 (sec. 495), is re- 
annexed to France. (3) Germany gives to France the coal 
mines of the Sarre (sar) Basin in rightful compensation for French 




Lands Ceded by the Treaty of 1919 with Germany 



coal mines destroyed by the Germans. France wished to annex 
the Sarre Basin, but was overruled ; it was provided instead 
that this territory should be governed by a commission under 
the League of Nations and that after fifteen years the people 
of the Sarre Basin should vote, by districts, whether to remain 
under that government, or to be annexed to France, or to go back 
to Germany. (4) Small areas on the border are ceded to Bel- 
gium and to Czechoslovakia (chek-o-slo-vak'i-a), and in the 
far northeast a strip is ceded to the Allies, no doubt to be added 
later to Lithuania. (5) Most of the Polish territory long held 
by Prussia (sec. 366) is ceded to the new republic of Poland. 



704 Results of the World War 

Danzig, however, is made a free city under the control of the 
League of Nations, with provisions guaranteeing to Poland the 
use of docks and railroads. (6) In addition, the treaty pro- 
vided for plebiscites (pleb'i-sits), or votes of the people, to de- 
termine whether other districts should be ceded to Poland and 
to Denmark. The plebiscite district on the border of Denmark 
was divided into two zones ; the northern zone voted in favor 
of Denmark, and was thus reunited to that country after a sepa- 
ration of half a century (sec. 491), but the southern zone voted 
to remain in Germany. The plebiscite district north of Poland 
likewise voted to remain German. In all, Germany lost only 
about one eighth of her territory, most of it parts of Prussia. 

In addition Germany (7) lost all her colonies, and (8) agreed 
to pay in partial reparation for the destruction of property the 
sum of $5,000,000,000 within two years, besides further amounts 
($20,000,000,000 or more) to be fixed later. She also agreed 
(9) to limit her army and navy to small forces, and (10) to sur- 
render for trial by Allied governments men who were accused of 
acts in violation of the laws of war.^ (11) To insure the carrying 
out of the treaty, it was provided that the west bank of the 
Rhine, and important points on the east bank, should be occupied 
for some years by Allied troops. 

This treaty with Germany was signed June 28, 1919. It went 
into effect January 10, 1920, after ratification by Germany, 
Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan, and other powers. 

The treaty with Austria was signed September 10, 1919. It 
reduces Austria to an insignificant state of seven million people 
with the great city of Vienna as its center, but without any sea- 
port. Seldom in history has a great nation been reduced to so 
low a state in so short a time. The Austrians, who are of the 

1 In order not to embarrass too greatly the new republican government of Ger- 
many, the Allies later consented to the suspension of this clause, on condition 
that the accused men be tried by a German court. The treaty also provided for 
the trial of the kaiser himself, "for a supreme offense against international mo- 
rality and the sanctity of treaties," but this was prevented by Holland's refusal to 
surrender him. 




Longitude 



Long-itud 




■ • CRETE jA (Tu let's' 



The Nations After the War 705 

German race, wished to be incorporated with Germany, and 
Germany was wilhng ; but France feared that such a union would 
strengthen Germany too much, and the peace treaties forbid 
it. Austria remained, therefore, an independent repubhc. 

The treaty with Bulgaria was signed late in 1919 ; those with 
Hungary and with Turkey not until 1920. In each case the de- 
feated country agreed to cessions of territory and limitation of 
military forces. 

II. The Nations After the War 

596. The New Germany. — Not only the kaiser but all the 
monarchs of the various German states (sec. 504) abdicated or 
were deposed in November, 191 8. ^ With the crumbling of the 
empire it was necessary for the German people to devise a new 
form of government. Accordingly on November 16 a provisional 
republic was set up with Frederick Ebert (a'bert) as chancellor. 
The flight and abdication of the kaiser discredited the old Junker 
party, the party of the aristocracy who had brought on the war, 
and the new republican ship of state might have had clear sail- 
ing but for the violent attempts of the Spartacans (sec. 173) 
or radical Socialists to get control of the helm. There was much 
fighting in the streets of Berlin, but by the middle of January, 
1 91 9, the Spartacans were subdued and the Ebert government 
was in full control. It was learned later that the Spartacans 
were aided with money and advice from the Russian Bolsheviki, 
who were making all possible efforts to spread their form of gov- 
ernment over other nations. 

A National Assembly, freely and fairly elected by the men and 
women of Germany, began its sessions early in February, 1919. 
The delegates were divided among six or more parties, but the 
great majority were moderates. The Junker and the radical 
extremes elected few delegates. Thus the election proved that 

1 William II, from his retreat in Holland, abdicated the thrones of Prussia and 
the German Empire on November 29, and a week later his eldest son, the crown 
prince, renounced all his rights. Thus fell the HohenzoUerns. 



7o6 Results of the World War 

the people wanted an orderly republican government, free from 
monarchy on the one hand and Bolshevism on the other. The 
business of the National Assembly was to frame a constitution 
for the newborn republic, while governing the country in the 
meantime. The constitution was adopted on July 31, 1919, and 
Frederick Ebert was elected the first president of Germany. 
A harness maker by trade, he had served many years as a mem- 
ber of the Reichstag, and was one of the leaders of the moderate 
Socialist party. 

The new constitution provides for a president to be elected by 
the votes of the people, men and women above twenty years 
old, for a term of seven years ; also for a legislature of two houses. 
The upper house, the National Council, represents the states, 
one representative for each million people, except that no state 
can have more than two fifths of the whole number. This last 
provision is intended to prevent Prussia, which comprises more 
than half the population of the country, from having control of 
the National Council. The lower house, called the Reichstag, 
is elected by the people for four years, but like the British Parha- 
ment may be dissolved before its time has expired. The Reichs- 
tag has far more power than the National Council, and in fact 
is the real governing power of the nation ; for the cabinet, ap- 
pointed by the president, is responsible to the Reichstag. It is 
provided also that each of the states of Germany shall have a 
republican form of government. 

The new German government had to face the stubborn opposi- 
tion of both extremes — the reactionary Junkers and the radi- 
cal Spartacans. The army was largely under the control of re- 
actionary officers, who in March, 1920, attempted a revolution 
and actually seized the capital, Berlin. President Ebert and his 
cabinet fled from the city and called on the railway and other 
workmen of Germany to defeat the revolution by a general 
strike. The reactionaries were thus forced to give up their at- 
tempt, and the Ebert government was restored. A few weeks 
later the Reichstag was dissolved and a new election took place 



Ihe JNations After the War 



707 



in June, in which the reactionary and radical parties made large 
gains ; but the moderate parties retained a safe majority. 

597. Poland. — One of the most notable results of the World 
War is the liberation of Poland and its reunion from parts of 




(Q) Underuvod & Underwood 

Monument to Henryk Sienkiewicz (shen-kya'vich), in Warsaw 

This great Polish writer was the author of many novels, including Quo Vadis, 
which has been translated into more than thirty languages and is the basis of 
plays produced in England, France, Germany, and the United States. In 1905 
the author received the Nobel prize for literature — one of several prizes awarded 
each year from funds left by the Swedish scientist Nobel'. 

Prussia, Austria, and Russia. The Poles, a Slavic people of the 
Roman Catholic faith, have been known to history for a thou- 
sand years. During the Middle Ages Poland grew to be one of 
the important European states, but having no natural boundaries 



7o8 Results of the World War 

on the west or on the east it was frequently overrun by invading 
armies. In the eighteenth century it was wiped ofif the map and 
divided among its three greedy neighbors (sec. 366). But the 
Poles maintained their language, their customs, and their re- 
Ugion, never ceasing to look forward to the time when they might 
again be free. 

During the World War, great sections of Poland were made 
desolate by the contending armies, some parts being overrun 
as many as seven times. The people's homes were destroyed ; 
their food was consumed ; they perished in hundreds of thou- 
sands. But with all this the surviving Poles, as the war ap- 
proached its end, looked through the dark war clouds for the 
coming dawn. 

On the day of the armistice with Germany, General Joseph 
Pilsudski (pel-sood'ske) , lately released from a German prison, 
was proclaimed by the Poles as their military governor. He 
became the dictator pending the establishing of a national gov- 
ernment. An election for a Diet (National Assembly) was held, 
and meantime a provisional government was set up, with Ignace 
Paderewski (pa-de-ref'ske) as premier. Paderewski, who had 
lived for many years in the United States and was known the 
world over as the greatest living pianist, laid aside his music 
and took up the role of statesman. The electors gave a majority 
to the parties of Paderewski and Pilsudksi and both were con- 
tinued in office. The United States and other countries recognized 
the new Polish republic, but its troubles were not yet over. 

Throughout the year 19 19 Poland had war on nearly all sides, 
chiefly on account of boundary disputes. The Poles with a half 
million men under arms defended, with great fortitude, what 
they believed to be their rightful boundary lines. Meanwhile 
they appealed to the Allies for military equipment ^ and espe- 

1 One hundred carloads of equipment, purchased in France from the Ameri- 
can government, reached Poland at the end of January, 1920. Larger supplies 
came from Great Britain and France, chiefly by way of Danzig and the Polish 
"corridor" between East Prussia and the remainder of Germany. 



The Nations After the War 709 

dally for moral support. Premier Paderewski in September, 
19 1 9, said, " From a Polish point of view, our one hope of future 
security as a state lies with the League of Nations, .... Po- 
land has set up a democracy under the inspiration of the American 
people." 

The western boundary was settled by treaty (sec. 595), and 
the wars against Poland, except that with Bolshevist Russia, 
gradually died out. To forestall a Russian offensive in 1920, 
the Polish armies, against the advice of the Allies, advanced far 
beyond their eastern boundary." They took Kief, but were then 
defeated. The Russian armies pressed hard upon the Poles and 
in August, 1920, reached the environs of Warsaw. For a time 
it was feared that the city would fall ; but the Poles, aided by 
France and encouraged by the United States, rose to the occa- 
sion, drove back the enemy forces, and saved their capital and 
their country'-. 

598. Bolshevist Russia. — Of all the tales of suffering en- 
gendered by the World War the most baleful are those which 
come from Russia and the lands on the Russian borders. Other 
countries were devastated indeed beyond description ; but the 
war over, they were ready to bind up their wounds and look for- 
ward to a new life. Not so in Russia. In that unhappy land 
the miseries of the people were multiplied after the armistice. 
The cause lies in the fact that extreme radical leaders were in 
control, with the avowed purpose to overturn society, demolish 
the institutions that had been centuries in building, destroy all 
the old governments of the world by force and violence, and 
set up a new and untried system. 

The new system is known as Bolshevism. It had its origin 
in the activities of paid German agents during the World War. 
These agents were sent to demoralize the Russian peasants and 
soldiers by convincing them that the war was for the benefit of 
the rich only, that peace would bring bread and prosperity. 
The workmen and peasants were told also that all factories and 
farms really belonged to them and that the capitalists and great 



yio Results of the World War 

landholders should be driven out. The most radical faction of 
the Russian Socialists, calling themselves Bolsheviki, took up the 
cry and soon they outdistanced all the German agents. 

On taking control of Russia (sec. 573), the Bolsheviki seized 
the property but repudiated the debts and all other obligations 
of the country. Under the astute leadership of Lenin (lyen'in) 
and Trotzky,^ they tried many socialistic and other experiments. 
Factories were seized and for a time were managed by the Bol- 
shevist government through committees of the workmen. All 
laborers, skilled and unskilled, were to be paid alike by the state. 
But production fell off so greatly that the Bolsheviki practically 
admitted the failure of this system. They engaged experts at 
high pay, and they turned some factories back to private control, 
and at length, in 1920, they conscripted labor armies, forcing 
workmen to labor long hours under severe military discipline, 
with no right to choose their occupation or place of residence. 

599. The New Russian Autocracy. — The form of government 
nominally introduced by the Bolsheviki is that by Soviets 
(so-vyets'), or committees, — that is, committees of workmen. 
For electing members of the local soviet, only workmen and the 
poorer peasants were allowed to vote, including no one who 
hired any employee. A soviet for each larger district was made 
up of members elected by the local Soviets of the district, and so 
on up to a central soviet or congress of Soviets for the whole coun- 
try. In theory the commissars or administrative officers of the 
government were subject to appointment and control by this 
system of Soviets. But in practice the Bolshevist party, though 
only a small minority in numbers, controlled all elections by force 
and intimidation ; and Lenin and Trotzky ruled the party and 
the country more autocratically than any tsar. 

There was no freedom of speech or of the press ; no newspapers 

1 When the tsar was deposed early in 191 7, Lenin was an exile in Switzerland, 
whence he returned to Russia by the aid of the German government. He had a 
large following as a speaker and writer on socialism. Trotzky returned to Russia 
from New York, where* he had been writing for a radical Russian newspaper. 



The Nations After the War 711 

were allowed except those published by the Bolshevist gov- 
ernment. The nobles and the middle class were reduced to 
menial labor or starvation. Workmen no longer had the right 
to strike. The people were disarmed, under penalty of death 
tor having possession of weapons. An elaborate spy system 
was maintained to detect and crush all opposition. 

The peasants seized the land they wanted, and raised food 
enough for themselves ; but often resisted the Bolsheviki when 
ordered to sell food for the worthless paper money printed in 
enormous quantities by the government. Hence there was 
famine in the cities. The railroads and the cars and locomotives 
were soon wearing out. Commerce was almost at a standstill. 

The one industry in which the Bolsheviki were apparently suc- 
cessful was war. Although they threatened the world with war 
and revolution, most of the Allied nations were too war-weary 
to send armies against them. The Allies, however, kept up a 
blockade of Bolshevist Russia, and supplied munitions for at- 
tempted counter revolutions and conquests by other Russian 
parties. These attempts were defeated, one after another, by the 
" Red " armies under the direction of Trotzky, the commissar 
of war; thus in 1920 Baron Wrangel's democratic government 
in and near the Crimea was overthrown. In Russia and on 
its borders the Red armies seized grain and other supplies, and 
became a greater scourge than tsarism ever was. Their ravages 
over great sections have no parallel since the Mohammedan 
invasions of the seventh century. Thousands of people were 
put to death for no crime except their unwillingness to accept 
the Bolshevist doctrines. 

600. Russian Border Lands. — Finland (sec. 541), like Po- 
land, after the World War became an independent republic, ac- 
knowledged by most of the powers. Other lands on the borders 
of Russia claimed an independence which was more doubtful. 

The Baltic provinces (sec. 541), by the hard fighting of Es- 
thonians, Letts, and Lithuanians against Bolsheviki and Ger- 
mans, made themselves independent republics and were recognized 



712 



Results of the World War 



as such by certain nations. Other nations were in doubt whether 
these lands should not ultimately be reincorporated with Russia, 
after the hoped-for overthrow of Bolshevist tyranny. Esthonia 
secured a favorable treaty of peace with Bolshevist Russia at the 
end of 1919. Latvia fought in alliance with Poland against Rus- 
sia, while Lithuania was hostile to Poland on account of a dis- 
puted boundary. 




© Underwood & Undenoooa 

Principal Street in Kiee (ke'yef), the Capital or Ukraine 

The shop signs are in the Russian language. Kief is one of the oldest cities in 
Europe, but the street car tracks and poles carrying electric wires show that it is 
far from being unprogressive. The city is on the navigable Dnieper River, and is a 
railway and trade center. In the wars of 1918 to 1920 it was taken and retaken 
many times by contending armies. 



The southwestern part of Russia bordering the Black Sea, 
known as Ukraine, set up its own independent government soon 
after the fall of the tsar. The Little Russians or Ukrainians 
are a sturdy people, differing slightly in speech and race from 
the other Russians. For ages, like the Poles and other subject 
peoples, they were oppressed by the government of the tsar, 
but they maintained their traditions and culture as best they 



The Nations After the War 713 

could. The new republican government, under the brave leader- 
ship of General Petlu'ra, was sorely tried. Again and again 
Ukraine was overrun by the Russian Bolsheviki and suffered 
the ravages of civil strife. In 1920 a Bolshevist government 
was in power, allied with and subservient to Russia. If Ukraine 
finally maintains its independence, it will be the largest new 
European nation created by the World War. There are rich iron 
and coal mines, but the greatest wealth of the country lies in its 
fertile farms ; the great majority of the people are farmers. 

Farther east, in Europe and in Asia, other border lands in 1918- 
1920 claimed existence as independent republics, some hostile 
to the Bolsheviki and others under Bolshevist governments in 
alliance with the Lenin autocracy. North of the Caucasus 
Mountains there were Cossack states, and south of them were 
the republics of Georgia and Azerbaijan (a-zer-bl-jan'). Georgia 
boasts a history of two thousand years and has been Christian 
since the fourth century. It was annexed to the Russian Em- 
pire in 1802. It is about the area of the state of New York and 
numbers some 3,000,000 people. Azerbaijan, east of Georgia, 
is a Mohammedan state. The rich Baku (ba-koo') petroleum 
field in Azerbaijan makes this land especially valuable, and in the 
summer of 1920 Bolshevist Russia seized control. 

601. Hungary and Roumania. — It was the aim of the Bol- 
sheviki to spread their system of industry and government over 
the whole world by inciting and aiding revolutions by workmen 
in other lands. In three years of effort, however, they saw their 
system adopted in only one country outside of the former Russian 
Empire, and that for only a few months. When informed of the 
territorial cessions required by the Allies, Hungary in defiance 
called the Hungarian Bolshevist party into power (March, 1919) 
— with results almost as disastrous as in Russia. Estates and 
fortunes were seized, divided, and spent, factories were misman- 
aged, and production declined, while a Red army was enlisted 
to recover the old boundaries of Hungary. At this point Rou- 
mania intervened. In a short war the Roumanian army com- 

EL. M. T. — 46 



714 



Results of the World War 



pletel}^ defeated and overthrew the new Hungarian government. 
This was partly because the Hungarian people, repenting of their 
sorry experiment, were split into contending parties. In due 
time the Roumanians withdrew, taking with them much property, 
including some of the plunder stripped from Roumania during 
the World War. Hungary set up a reactionary government, 
looking to the reestablishment of a monarchy. The treaty 
with the Allies reduced that country to less than a third of its 
former size; it was made smaller in area and population than 
any of the adjacent countries except Austria. 




Street Festival in Bucharest, the Capital of Roumania 

From an ofScial Red Cross photograph. The dancers are wearing, in honor 
of the occasion, the old national costume, which has been preserved unchanged for 

generations. 



By annexations from Hungary, Austria, and Russia, the king- 
dom of Roumania was doubled in area and population as a re- 
sult of the World War. 

602. Czechoslovakia. — Besides Roumania and Poland, two 
other nations received large areas from the former Austria-Hun- 
gary, — namely, the Slavic nations of Czechoslovakia and Jugo- 
slavia (yoo-go-sla'vi-a). 



The Nations After the War 715 

At the outbreak of the World War, the Czechs or Bohemians 
(sec. 258), in spite of centuries of Austrian rule, were a prosperous 
and well-educated people. The Slovaks' to the east of them, 
mostly peasants, were closely related in race and language. 
Both Czechs and Slovaks were opposed to German rule, and of 
the 600,000 of them forced into the Austro-Hungarian armies 
more than half deserted to the Russians. When Russia col- 
lapsed many of these soldiers tried to reach the Western Front 
by crossing Siberia and the Western Hemisphere. But the 
Bolsheviki attacked them, whereupon they seized the Siberian 
railroad and held it for many months. Meanwhile, before the 
end of the war, the people at home and abroad declared their 
independence, created a new nation, and named it Czechoslo- 
vakia. As early as June 30, 191 8, the president of France carried 
a Czechoslovakian flag to the battle front, amid great rejoicing, 
and handed it to the soldiers of that nation who were fighting 
beside the French. 

The father of Czechoslovakia is Thomas G. Masaryk (ma'sa-rek) 
who was an exile throughout the war, under sentence of death. A 
man of great talent, enjoying before the war a European reputa- 
tion, Masaryk with rare foresight believed among the first that 
Austria-Hungary would be dissolved and gave all his energies 
to the future liberty of his people. In 19 15 he was in Switzer- 
land, in Paris, in London, working in the interest of his people ; 
later we find him in Siberia, where he started the Czecho-Slovak 
army on its great journey around the world, and still later he was 
in Washington in conference with President Wilson. 

The new state adopted a republican form of government and 
chose Masaryk its first president, in his absence. The month 
following the armistice witnessed the homecoming of the new 
president. Passing through a great throng of shouting people, 
he entered the Parliament building and took the oath of office 
with the simple words, " I promise." In 1920 Masaryk was 
reelected president for a term of seven years. 

Czechoslovakia is one of the most promising of the newborn 



7i6 



Results of the World War 




Meeting Place of the Czechoslovakian Parliament, Prague 

This building, known as the Rudolphinum, was erected for a conservatory of 

music and art gallery. Prague, the capital of Czechoslovakia, has long been an 

educational center. Its university was founded in the fourteenth century, and is 

one of the oldest in Europe. 



nations. It is one fourth the size of France and has an inteUi- 
gent and industrious population of about thirteen milhons. 
The prevaiUng rehgion is Roman Catholic. The majority of the 
people are farmers, but there are many important manufacturing 
industries, and of the coal and iron mines of the former Austria- 
Hungary more than half are now within the bounds of Czecho- 
slovakia. 

603. Jugoslavia. — Another group of the Slavic peoples, known 
as the Jugo-Slavs (South Slavs), is composed of the Slovenes, 
Croats, and Serbs in the southern parts of the late Austria -Hungary 
(sec. 258), together with the Serbs of Serbia and Montenegro. 
A movement for the union of all these under one government was 
begun as early as August, 191 8. Finally a convention of repre- 
sentatives of all the Jugo-Slavs, held at Belgrade on January 



The Nations After the War 



717 



5, 1919, formed the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, 
with the royal house of Serbia on the throne. 

Trouble soon began. Complaints of Serbian oppression came 
from different parts of the kingdom. In Montenegro there was 
strife between supporters of the new order and supporters of the 




City and Harbor of Fiume 



Underwood & Underwood 



Situated on an inlet of the Adriatic Sea, the city has several harbors and ex- 
tensive docks, with an important railway extending eastward. Before the World 
War the exports of grain, flour, sugar, lumber, and horses from Fiume amounted 
in value to about $30,000,000 a year. 

deposed king. When Ital}^ laid claim to the city of Fiume (sec. 
594), on the ground that a majority of its people are Italian, a 
bitter protest arose from the Jugo-Slavs. Fiume is practically 
their only outlet to the world by sea, as the rest of their coast line 
is so mountainous as to be useless. While the claim was under 
consideration, a band of Italians led by the poet and aviator 



7i8 Results of the World Wai* 

d'Annunzio (dan-noon'dze-o) seized the city for Italy, in defiance 
of both governments, and after long delay declared the district 
an independent state. 

Jugoslavia, as the Serb-Croat-Slovene state is commonly 
called, embraces a great extent of territory. It is much larger 
than Czechoslovakia, but is about equal in population and the 
people are less homogeneous. Except their Slavic origin and kin- 
dred language they have little in common. Some are of the 
Greek Orthodox Church, and some are Roman Catholics. Hav- 
ing lived apart for ages, it will be difificult for them to establish 
national ties that will insure a harmonious government. In the 
summer of 1920 arrangements were made for the election of a 
convention or assembly to frame the constitution of the new 
nation. 

604. Italy and Greece. — Italian claims to territory were dis- 
puted not only by Jugoslavia but also by Albania and by Greece ; 
but a peaceful outcome was secured in most cases and was prom- 
ised in the others. Included in the cessions to Italy were the 
regions around Trent and Trieste ; several islands on the north- 
east coast of the Adriatic, one of them an islet commanding the 
entrance to that sea ; and the island of Rhodes, subject to a 
plebiscite at the end of fifteen years. 

Though late in entering the World War, Greece ranks very 
high in the rewards of victory, due chiefly to two facts ; first, 
because the geographical position of Greece is such that she be- 
came the natural recipient of territory taken from Turkey and 
Bulgaria, especially large areas inhabited chiefly by Greeks ; 
second, because of the diplomatic skill of her premier, Venizelos 
(ven-e-za'los), one of the ablest statesmen of the time. It was 
by him that Greece was guided to victory in the Balkan wars 
(sec. 546). It was through his influence that Greece deposed her 
pro-German king, Constantine, placed his son Alexander on the 
throne, and entered the war on the side of the Allies in June, 
191 7. Through Venizelos also Greece secured large gains after 
the war and has become a power of great strength in southern 



The Nations After the War 719 

Europe, to be compared with ancient Greece in her best days 
(see maps following page 64, on pages 620 and 624, and following 
704). 

605. The Turkish Empire Dismembered. — We have noted 
that three great European empires — Russia, Germany, Austria- 
Hungary — were overthrown by the war. The Turkish Empire 
also, like Austria-Hungary, was broken to pieces, although the 
sultan or emperor was not deposed. For five hundred years 
the Turkish interlopers from Asia had disturbed the peace of 
Europe, and great numbers of people in Europe and America 
believed that they should now be cast out of Europe altogether. 
But the Allies decided to leave the Turks in possession of Con- 
stantinople, one reason being the objections to any other dis- 
position of the city. The treaty, however, signed August 10, 
1920, was humiliating enough. 

Among its provisions are the following : (i) Turkey in Europe 
is confined to the small peninsula including Constantinople. 
(2) Turkey cedes to Greece the rest of Thrace, most of her 
.^gean islands, and Smyrna in Asia Minor, with a considerable 
area around it. (3) The navigation of the straits — the Darda- 
nelles, Sea of Marmora, the Bosporus — is to be free to all and 
under the control of a commission appointed, one member each, 
by many nations interested. (4) Turkey recognizes the inde- 
pendence of Armenia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Hedjaz, and the 
autonomy of Kurdistan (koor-di-stan') — later to be granted 
independence if so decided by the League of Nations. 

As a result, the Turkish Empire is reduced from about 700,000 
square miles with 20,000,000 population to less than 200,000 
square miles and 10,000,000 population. In addition (5) Tur- 
key is forbidden to keep a navy, her army is reduced to 50,000 
men, and even her finances are placed under foreign control. 
(6) Moreover, Turkey is required to protect the lives and prop- 
erty of all inhabitants regardless of race, religion, or nationality. 

This reduction of the Turks to impotence must be pronounced 
one of the most gratifying results of the World War, if the treaty 



720 Results of the World War 

is successfully carried out. But many of the Turks in Asia 
Minor, in defiance of the Allies and of their own sultan, formed a 
" Nationalist " army to resist the treaty. They were promised 
aid by Bolshevist Russia. Nearly all the Allied nations were 
disinclined to engage in a new war ; but the Greeks were ready 
to fight the Turks, and to them was intrusted the task of over- 
throwing the Nationalist army. 

606. Armenia and Other Liberated Lands. — One of the 
most interesting of the countries set free from the former Turk- 
ish Empire is Armenia. It is part of the territory occupied by 
the ancient Assyrian Empire, and includes the Mt. Ar'arat men- 
tioned in the Bible. The Armenians are chiefly farmers and 
shepherds, a people of the Indo-European branch of the white 
race (sec. 12). They boast the oldest national Christian church, 
dating from the third century. Their tenacious adherence to 
their religion has been the chief cause of many fearful massacres 
by the Turks. 

After the collapse of Russia, the Armenians of the former Rus- 
sian Empire, with many refugees from Turkey, set up an inde- 
pendent republic adjoining Georgia and Azerbaijan. The Ar- 
menia liberated from Turkey is to form part of the same new 
nation. 

Mesopotamia is another part of the ancient Assyrian Empire. 
Its present inhabitants include many peoples, chiefly Arabs, 
a Semitic people. As a result of the war it passed under British 
control and into a course of preparation for future home rule. 
It is important for its petroleum, which by agreement is to be 
divided among the British, the Mesopotamians, and the French. 

Syria extends from Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean Sea. 
Liberated by the war, Syria passed under French control, but 
looks forward to a future of self-government. Most of the 
people are Arabs. 

Palestine, the ancient land of the Jews and of the birth of 
Christianity, was wrested from the Turks by a British army. 
For twelve centuries it had been under Turkish control, except 



The Nations After the War 



721 




Main Building of the Proposed Hebrew University at Jerusalem 

This institution is to be built on the Mount of Olives, and many noted professors 
have agreed to join it. 



a brief period at the time of the crusades (sec. 225). What the 
future government of Palestine may be is not fully determined, 
but it is certain that Turkish rule in the Holy Land is ended. 
There is a widespread movement called Zionism for aiding Jews 
who wish to move to Palestine from any part of the world. An 
international Zionist Conference met in London in July, 1920, 
and elected Louis D. Brandeis, associate Justice of the Supreme 
Court of the United States, as president. Its purpose is to co- 
operate with Zionists all over the world in reestablishing Pales- 
tine as a home for the Jews. The British government, in control 
of the country, gives encouragement to the movement. 

South of Palestine and along the Red Sea lies the kingdom 
of Hedjaz, to which the war brought independence from Turkish 
control (Side Talk, page 696). This country is about 100,000 
square miles in area and contains the famous Mohammedan 
cities of Mecca and Medina. 

607. The British Empire ; Disposition of the German Col- 
onies. — Great Britain, like other AUied countries, incurred a 
vast debt through the war and sacrificed hundreds of thousands 



722 Results of the World War 

of her young men ; but hke others, too, she made certain gains. 
On the sea, the greatest rival navy was destroyed utterly ; on the 
land, the bounds of the British Empire were made larger than 
before. 

As already noticed, the British secured control, for a time 
at least, over Palestine and Mesopotamia. Also, as a result of 
the war, the Turkish claims to Cyprus and Egypt were yielded 
to Great Britain, and the British government secured a treaty 
with Persia, through which it obtained important concessions 
and influence. 

In Africa nearly all the land that had been the German col- 
onies was divided between the British Empire and France (map 
following page 581). In the Pacific Ocean, the former German 
islands south of the Equator fell to Australia and New Zealand, 
while those north of the Equator were assigned to Japan. This 
disposition of the German colonies is subject to some degree of 
control by the League of Nations. The Kiaochow colony (sec. 
512) and German railroads and mines in the Shantung province 
of China, on the contrary, were ceded outright to Japan ; the 
only concession that President Wilson was able to secure was a 
promise by Japan that the sovereignty over this region would 
be restored to China. 

III. International Problems 

608. The League of Nations. — The idea of a league of nations 
was not new in 191 9; it had been discussed over and over for 
centuries ; a generation had passed since Tennyson's vision of 
the time when 

" The war-drum throbbed no longer, and the battle-flags were furled 
In the Parliament of Man, the Federation of the World." 

A forerunner of the present League of Nations may be seen 
in the Hague Conferences (sec. 557). The formation of a league 
with power to enforce arbitration and to prevent future wars, 
as one provision of the peace treaties of 1919, was strongly urged 



International Problems 723 

by many statesmen, including Ex- President Taft and President 
Wilson of the United States, and Jan C. Smuts, war minister and 
Peace Conference delegate of the Union of South Africa. 

This project of an organization that shall secure the peaceful 
settlement of all international disputes is the most momentous 
political proposal that mankind ever took under consideration. 
Its future will depend on the status of our civilization. Was 
the world in 191 9 ready for this great thing, for such heights of 
moral grandeur, or was our civilization still too crude, must the 
world endure a few more centuries of war and bloodshed ? 

Mankind has made great progress since the primitive days 
when .there were no laws to prevent a man from killing his neigh- 
bor ; but throughout the ages one country might make war on 
another, a strong nation might strike down a weak one, without 
violating any law. It was not an illegal act when Austria de- 
clared war on Serbia in 1914, although Serbia was willing to 
leave their dispute to arbitration. The League of Nations es- 
tablished by the treaties of 19 19 makes such an act, by any mem- 
ber of the League, illegal and criminal, and binds all the members 
to resist such an act by any nation. 

Few are those who do not approve of the general aim of the 
League of Nations, but in the United States and elsewhere op- 
position arose for various reasons to certain provisions of the 
constitution or covenant of the League as embodied in the treaties. 
In the United States Senate the necessary two-thirds vote for 
ratifying the treaty with Germany and thus joining the League 
of Nations, with or without certain amendments or reservations, 
was not secured ; hence the question became an issue in the presi- 
dential election of 1920. On the other hand, almost all the Allied 
nations and the neutral nations that were invited to join the League 
accepted membership in it. Russia, Mexico, and the defeated 
nations were not yet invited to join, but it is expected that they 
will be admitted later, when they have acquired stable gov- 
ernments in sympathy with the aims of the League. 

The covenant of the League, the first part of the treaty with 



724 Results of the World War 

Germany, is not very long ; every student should read it. Among 
its notable clauses are provisions against secret treaties ; for 
the improvement of conditions affecting labor ; for compulsory 
arbitration ; and for the future reduction of national armaments. 
The League is governed by an Assembly and a Council. The 
Assembly is to be made up of one representative from each mem- 
ber nation ; it has few powers, but is planned, like the Hague 
Conference, as a body in which conditions threatening the peace 
of the world may be brought up for discussion. The Council 
consists of one representative each from the United States (if it 
joins the League), the British Empire, France, Italy, Japan, 
and four other nations to be selected by the Assembly from time 
to time.i It exercises most of the powers intrusted to the League, 
but on nearly all questions a unanimous vote is required for a de- 
cision. Its first meeting was held January i6, 1920, within a 
week after the ratification of the treaty with Germany. 

609. Problems of 1920. — What were the questions that 
threatened the peace of the world in the autumn of 1920, two 
years after the armistice ? 

We have already noted the long-drawn-out dispute over Fiume 
(sec. 603) and the wars waged or threatened by Bolshevist Russia 
(sees. 597-601) and by the Turkish Nationalists (sec. 605). There 
was strife also between Poland and Lithuania (sec. 600) and 
between the Syrians and the French (sec. 606). The most dis- 
turbing feature of such problems was the difficulty of maintain- 
ing Allied harmony in face of the conflicting views and interests 
of the different nations. Great Britain and Italy, for example, 
were inclined to consider a possible peace with Bolshevist Russia, 
while France was opposed to dealing with a government that re- 
pudiated the Russian debts (sec. 598) and avowed its intention 
to break at its convenience any treaty it might make with a 
" capitalist " government. France also was more interested than 
other nations in enforcing the provisions of the treaty with Ger- 

^ Pending the first meeting of the Assembly, these four seats in the Council were 
given to Belgium, Brazil, Greece, and Spain. 



International Problems 725 

many, which the German government wished to evade or reduce 
on the plea that complete enforcement was impossible. 

In Ireland and in Egypt there was bitter agitation against 
British rule. A British commission sent to study conditions in 
Egypt found the people almost unanimous in their desire for 
independence. The commission advised that independence be 
granted, subject to a treaty of alliance that would leave British 
troops in possession of the Suez Canal and would protect British 
interests in the conduct of Egypt's foreign relations. 

In Ireland the problem was very difhcuit because the people 
were divided, as we have seen (sec. 522). During and after the 
World War the Sinn Fein (shin fan) 1 society was very active in 
working for complete Irish independence. Under the leader- 
ship of Sir Roger Casement an Irish rebellion was planned, with 
German aid, in April, 1916. Casement was captured soon after 
landing from a German submarine, but the insurrection never- 
theless broke out in Dublin. There was heavy fighting in the 
streets before it was suppressed, and feeling was further em- 
bittered by the execution of Casement and others for treason. 
The British Parliament did not venture to impose conscription 
upon Ireland as it did upon England and Scotland. In 191 7 
an all-Irish convention was held for the purpose of devising some 
plan of home rule that would be acceptable to both the Protestant, 
industrial north and the Catholic, agricultural south ; but no 
agreement could be reached. 

In 191 8 more than half of the members of Parliament elected 
from Ireland were of the Sinn Fein party. They refused to take 
their seats in the British Parliament, but instead met in Dublin 
and organized themselves as the parliament of an independent 
Irish Republic. This action was ignored by the British gov- 
ernment, which continued to govern Ireland in spite of a long 
campaign of violence by agitators for independence — including 
the destruction of police barracks and the shooting of police- 
men and other officials. In 1920 Lloyd George proposed a new 
1 Sinn Fein is a Gaelic name meaning "we ourselves." 



726 



Results of the World War 




SaCKVILLE (or O'CoNNELLj STREET, DUBLIN 

This, the main street of the northern half of Dublin, is a great thoroughfare 
120 feet wide. The beautiful portico supported by Ionic columns (picture on page 
g4) is part of the post ofEce building. Here was the heaviest fighting in the up- 
rising of 1916. In the center of the street is the Nelson monument, 134 feet high, 
consisting of a Doric column surmounted by a statue of the admiral (sec. 423). 
Notice the double-decked trolley cars and in the middle of the street the little 
two-wheeled "jaunting cars" waiting for passengers. - 



plan of home rule with separate parliaments for the north and 
the south of Ireland ; but it was not well received. 

In the far East in 1920 the Koreans were protesting against 
Japanese rule ; Japanese troops were holding part of eastern 
Siberia as a buffer against the spread of Bolshevism ; various 
questions were in dispute between Japan and China ; and military 
rulers in several parts of China were threatening the disruption of 
that great nation. 

610. Racial Problems. — It will be noticed that several of the 
problems mentioned above are racial — due to conflicts between 
different peoples. In the peace treaties with defeated nations 
and with new nations, an effort was made by the Allies to end the 
causes of such conflicts. The new boundary lines were drawn 
very largely in accordance with racial boundaries, as will be seen 



International Problems 727 

by comparing the maps following pages 648 and 704. More- 
over, clauses were inserted in the various treaties to give pro- 
tection in each country to minorities differing from the bulk of 
the population in language or in religion. 

In such provisions as these, as well as in the covenant of the 
League of Nations, may be seen the earnest endeavor of the 
treaty makers to allay animosities, promote justice, and es- 
tablish right instead of might as the arbiter in conflicts between 
nations. 

Questions and Topics. — I. Who were the " Big Four " in the Paris 
Peace Conference? Why was Premier Clemenceau one of them, and 
not the president of France (sec. 499) ? State five of the most im- 
portant provisions of the treaty with Germany. What was the gen- 
eral purport of the treaties made later with the other defeated nations? 
What were the other defeated nations? 

II. What kind of government was set up in Germany after the war? 
In what other countries that you know, besides Germany, do both 
women and men ha^ve the right to vote? Make a list of the new coun- 
tries established as a result of the war, with the kind of government 
in each. What existing countries made the largest gains in territory? 
In the series of maps in this book, follow the fortunes of the island of 
Rhodes and make a list of its changes in ownership. Do the same for 
Sicily; for the area that is now Belgium; for the area from which your 
ancestors came to this country. 

III. Find in the covenant of the League of Nations, if you can, 
some important provision not mentioned in this book. Debate the 
question : What action should the Senate have taken on the treaty with 
Germany in 191 9? In current events find some unsettled problem 
that threatens war, and tell how it ought to be settled. 

Events and Dates. — Peace Conference at Paris convened in Janu- 
ary, 1919. Treaty with Germany signed in June and went into effect 
January 10, 1920. Treaties with Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, and 
Turkey later. Establishment of Poland, Czechoslovakia, Jugoslavia, 
and other new nations, 1918-1920. 

For Further Reading. — Current History and other magazines. 
Statesman's Year Book and other annual publications. Dillon, The 
Inside Story of the Peace Conference. 



WORLD CHRONOLOGY 

Note. — Only the most important dates are here given. Dates pertaining to Ameri- 
can history (except a few of world importance), and to many of the great figures in art, 
literature, and other lines of achievement are omitted. Those of greatest importance in 
this table are printed in heavy-faced type. 

Dates B.C. 

4241 Egyptian calendar devised. 

About 3000-2700 Age of the Egyptian pyramid builders. 
About 2100 Hammurabi makes Babylon supreme in the Euphrates VaUey. 
About I goo Abraham founds the Hebrew nation. 
About 1 200-606 Supremacy of Assyria. 
About 1 100 (?) Trojan War. 
About 1050, David becomes king of Palestine. 
776 First Greek Olympiad. 
753 Founding of Rome (legendary). 
722 First captivity of the Jews. 
606 Fall of Nineveh. 
5g4 Solon frames an Athenian law code. 
586 Jews carried to Babylon. 
558 Cyrus founds the Persian Empire. 
490 Battle of Marathon. 
480 Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis. 
429 Death of Pericles. 
404 Athens surrenders to Sparta. 
400 Retreat of the Ten Thousand under Xenophon. 
3gg Death of Socrates. 
3go Rome captured by the Gauls. 
331 Battle of Arbela. 
323 Death of Alexander the Great. 
322 Death of Aristotle and of Demosthenes. 
2go Romans conquer the Samnites. 
264-241 First Punic War. 
218-201 Second Punic War. 
216 Battle of Cannas. 
207 Battle of the Metaurus. 
202 Defeat of Hannibal at Zama. 
I4g-i46 Third Punic War. 
146 Destruction of Carthage and of Corinth. 
133-12 1 Tiberius and Gains Gracchus attempt Roman reforms. 
106 Birth of Cicero. 

63 Palestine conquered by Pompey becomes Roman province. Catiline's Con- 
spiracy. 
58-50 Caesar conquers Gaul. 
44 Assassination of Julius Caesar. 
31 Battle of Actium. 
27 Augustus first Roman emperor. 
4 Birth of Jesus Christ. 

EL. M. T. — 47 ix 



World Chronology 



Dates A.D. 

9 Roman legions defeated by Arminius. 

64 Burning of Rome and persecution of Christians under Nero. 

70 Jerusalem destroyed by Titus. 

7g Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii by eruption of Vesuvius. 

161-180 Marcus Aurelius emperor. 

284-305 Diocletian emperor. 

312-337 Constantine the Great, first Christian emperor. 

325 Council of Nicasa. 

378 Battle of Adrianople. 

410 Rome taken by Goths under Alaric. 

44g Beginning of the Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain. 

451 Attila and the Huns defeated at battle of Chalons. 

455 Rome plundered by the Vandals under Genseric. 

476 "Fall" of the Roman Empire of the West. 

481-511 Reign of Clovis. 

534 Vandal kingdom overthrown by Belisarius. 

565 Death of Emperor Justinian. 

568 Lombards invade Italy. 

590-604 Gregory the Great pope. 

597 Augustine introduces Christianity into England. 

622 The Hegira (Mohammed's flight from Mecca). 

71 1-7 14 Conquest of Spain by the Saracens. 

732 Saracens defeated by Charles Martel in battle of Tours. 

754 Pepin grants the Pope temporal power. Death of Saint Boniface, apostle 

to Germany. 
768-814 Reign of Charlemagne. 

800 Charlemagne crowned emperor (Christmas Day). 
827 Kingdom of England founded by Egbert. 
843 Treaty of Verdun. 
871-901 Reign of Alfred the Great. 
936-973 Reign of Otto the Great. 

1016 Canute becomes king of England. 
1066 Battle of Hastings. 

1073-1085 Gregory VII (Hildebrand) pope. 

1096-1099 First crusade. 

1 1 89-1 1 99 Reign of Richard Coeur de Lion. 

1198-1216 Innocent III pope. 

1215 Magna Charta signed at Runnymede. 

1265 First English Parliament. Birth of Dante. 

1270 Last crusade. Death of Louis IX of France. 

1346 Battle of Cr6cy. First use of gunpowder in war. 

1348 The Black Death. 

1356 Battle of Poitiers. 

1381 Wat Tyler Insurrection. 

1386 Battle of Sempach. 

1397 Union of Calmar, — Denmark, Sweden, and Norway united. 

1414 Council of Constance. 

1415 Battle of Agincourt. John Hus burned at the stake. 
1 43 1 Joan of Arc burned at the stake. 

About 1450 Invention of printing from movable type by Gutenberg. 



World Chronology xi 

1453 Constantinople taken by the Turks. Close of the Hundred Years' War. 

1455-1485 Wars of the Roses. 

1462-1505 Reign of Ivan the Great of Russia. 

1483 Birth of Martin Luther. 

1492 America discovered by Columbus. Conquest of Granada and unification of 

Spain. 
1517 Beginning of the Reformation. 

1519 Charles V becomes emperor. Death of Leonardo da Vinci. 

1520 Death of Raphael. 

1 52 1 Diet of Worms. 
1530 Augsburg Confession. 

1534 England breaks with the Roman Church. Loyola foxmds the Order of 

Jesuits. 
1543 Copernicus publishes his theory of the solar system. 
I5SS Peace of Augsburg. 
1558-1603 Reign of Elizabeth. 
1564 Birth of Shakespeare. Death of Michelangelo. 

1571 Defeat of the Turks at the naval battle of Lepanto. 

1572 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 

1579 Founding of the Dutch Republic by William the Silent. 

1588 Defeat of the Spanish Armada. 

1598 Edict of Nantes. 

1607 English settle Jamestown. 

1611 Authorized version of the English Bible. 

161 6 Death of Shakespeare and of the Spanish author Cervantes. 

1618-1648 Thirty Years' War. 

1628 Petition of Right. 

1632 Battle of Liitzen. Death of Gustavus Adolphus. 

1642 Death of Richelieu. 

1 642-1 649 Civil War in England. 

1643-1715 Reign of Louis XTV. 

1648 Treaty of Westphalia. 

1653-1658 Cromwell Lord Protector. 

1660 Restoration of Charles 11. 

1666 Great fire in London. 

1674 Death of Milton. 

1685 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 

1687 Newton pubUshes his theory of gravitation. 

1688 Revolution in England. James II succeeded by William m. 

1689 Bill of Rights. 

1689-1725 Reign of Peter the Great. 

1690 Battle of the Boyne. 
1692 Battle of La Hogue. 

1 701 Prussia becomes a kingdom. 

1702— 1713 War of the Spanish Succession. 

1703 Founding of St. Petersburg, now Petrograd. 

1707 Union of England and Scotland as the kingdom of Great Britain. 

1709 Battle of Poltava. 

1713 Peace of Utrecht. 

1740-1786 Reign of Frederick the Great. 

1 756 -1 763 Seven Years' War. 

1762-1796 Reign of Catherine the Great. 



xii World Chronology 

I7S7 Battle of Plassey, India. 

About 1770 Invention of the steam engine. 

1772 First Partition of Poland. 

i775~i783 American Revolution. 

1789 French Revolution begins. 

I7QI Death of Mirabeau. 

i7g2 First French Republic. 

1793 King Louis XVI beheaded. Reign of Terror. Second Partition of Poland. 

1795 Third Partition of Poland. 

1800 Union of Ireland with Great Britain. 

1804 Napoleon I crowned emperor of France. 

1805 Battle of Trafalgar. Battle of Austerlitz. 
1815 Battle of Waterloo. Congress of Vienna. 
1823 Monroe Doctrine promulgated. 

1829 Greece wins independence. 

1830 Second Revolution in France. Belgium independent. 
1832 Reform in the British Parliament. 

About 1840 Morse invents the electric telegraph. 

1837-1901 Reign of Victoria. 

1846 Repeal of English corn laws. 

1848 Third Revolution in France. Second French Republic. 

1848-1916 Reign of Francis Joseph. 

1852 Louis Napoleon becomes emperor of France! 

1854 Commercial treaty between the United States and Japan. 

1854-1856 Crimean War. 

1857 Great Mutiny in India. 

1858 First Atlantic submarine cable laid. 

1859-1860 Most of Italy united under the leadership of Cavour ; other parts ac- 
quired in 1866, 1870, and 1918. 
1864 Defeat of Denmark by Prussia and Austria. 

1866 Seven Weeks' War. Prussia defeats Austria. 

1867 Dominion of Canada established. Fall of French dominion in Mexico. 

Second Reform in British Parliament. 

1869 Suez Canal completed. 
1870-1871 Franco-Prussian War. 

1870 Third French Republic. Vatican Council at Rome. 

1871 , German Empire founded. 

1875 Great Britain acquires control of the Suez Canal. New French constitution 

adopted. 

1876 Invention of the telephone. 
1878 Congress of Berlin. 

1 881 Assassination of Tsar Alexander II. 

1882 Great Britain acquires control of Egypt. 

1882 Italy joins Germany and Austria in forming the Triple Alliance. 

1890 Resignation of Bismarck. 

1892 Death of Tennyson. 

1893 Gladstone's Irish Home Rule bill defeated in the House of Lords. 

1894 War between China and Japan. 

1895 Kiel Canal opened. Discovery of X rays, by Rontgen. 

1896 Revival of the Olympic games. Turkish massacres in Armenia. 

1898 War between the United States and Spain. Death of Gladstone. Discovery 
of radium, by the Curies. 



World Chronology xiii 

1899 First Hague Conference. 

1 899-1 902 Boer War in South Africa. 

1900 Boxer uprising in China. 

1901 Federal Commonwealth of Australia formed. 
igo2 Alliance between Great Britain and Japan. 
1904-1905 War between Russia and j apan. 

1905 Separation of church and state in France. Uprising in Russia. Moroccan 
conference at Algeciras. Separation of Norway from Sweden. First long 
flights of the Wright airplane. 

1907 Second Hague Conference. Wireless communication across the Atlantic 

established. 

1908 Austria-Hungary annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina. 

1909 Abdul-Hamid, Turkish sultan, deposed. South African Union biU and 

Irish land bill pass the British Parliament. 

1 9 10 Japan annexes Korea. 

191 1 Act limiting Lords' veto power passed by British Parliament. Revolution 

in China. 
1911-1912 War between Italy and Turkey. 

1912 China becomes a republic. Italy annexes Tripoli. Balkan War — Greece, 

Bulgaria, Serbia, and Montenegro against Turkey. Peace May 30, 1913. 

1913 Second Balkan War. 

1914 June 28. Assassination of the Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand. 
July 28. Austria declares war on Serbia. 

Aug. I . Germany declares war on Russia. 

Aug. 3. Germany declares war on France. 

Aug. 4. Great Britain declares war on Germany. 

Aug. 15. Panama Canal opened. 

Aug. 23. Japan enters the war. 

Sept. 6-10. Battle of the Marne. 

Nov. 3. Turkey enters the war. 

1915 Feb.-Aug. Alhed attack on the Dardanelles. 
May 7. Sinking of the Lusilania. 

May 23. Italy enters the war. 
Aug. s. Germans capture Warsaw. 
Oct. 14. Bulgaria enters the war. 

1916 Feb. 21. Battle of Verdun begins. 
May 31. Naval battle of Jutland. 
Aug. 27. Roumania enters the war. 

Dec. 6. David Lloyd George succeeds Asquith as British premier. 

1917 Feb. I. Ruthless submarine campaign begins. 
March 11. Bagdad captured by the British. 

March 11-15. Russian Revolution; Tsar Nicholas II abdicates. 

April 6. United States declares war on Germany. 

Oct. 14. Great Austro-German drive in northern Italy begins. 

Nov. 7. Russian Bolsheviki seize Petrograd and depose Kerensky. 

Dec. 10. Jerusalem surrenders to the British. 

Dec. 7. United States declares war on Austria-Hungary. 

1918 March 3. Brest-Litovsk treaty between Germany and Russia. 
March 21. Great German drive begins on Western Front. 

March 29. General Foch appointed commander of all the Allied armies. 
July 18. Allied counter-offensive begins on Western Front. 
Sept. 12. Americans take the St. Mihiel salient. 



xiv World Chronology 

1918 Sept. 26. Beginning of the Meuse-Argonne battle. 

Sept. 2g. Surrender of Bulgaria. 

Oct. 31. Surrender of Turkey. 

Nov. 4. Armistice with Austria. 

Nov. II. Armistice with Germany. 

The war resulted in establishing Poland, Czechoslovakia, Jugoslavia, Fin- 
land, and other new nations, 
igig June 28. Peace treaty with Germany signed at Versailles. 
IQ20 Jan. 10. Treaty with Germany put into effect. 

Sept-Oct. Great victory of the Poles in repelling Bolshevist invasion. 

Oct. I. Forty-one nations had entered the League of Nations. 



INDEX 

Diacritic marks: a as in late; i as in senate; a as in fat; a as in far; a as in last; a as in 
care; a as in fall; e as in we; e as in return; e as in met, berry; e as in over, term; i as in ice; 
i as in tin; k, German ch; n the French nasal; 6 as in note; 6 as in obey; 6 as in not; 6 as 
in for; o as in soft; oo as in food; do as in good; u as in tune; u as in unite; u as in nut; ft as 
ia fur; U, French u; y as in my; y as in lady. 



Abdul-Hamid (ab-do6l-ha-med'), 619 

Ab'e-lard, 304 

A'bra-ham, Hebrew patriarch, 5, 6, 53 

Absentee landlords, of Ireland, 589 

Absolute governments, in Egypt, 30; 
in Mesopotamia, 48 ;, in Macedonia, 
122; in Rome, 142, 186, 203; rise 
of, in modern Europe, 403 ; in Prus- 
sia, 416; in Russia, 421, 610, 647; 
in France, 433; in Germany, 571, 
647; in Turkey, 619; decline of, 
637-638 

A-by'dos, Alexander at, 125 

Ab-ys-sin'i-a, 600 

Academy, of Plato, 106 

Ace, in airplane warfare, 687 

Achaeans (a-ke'anz), 63 

Achilles (a-kil'ez), 71 

Acre (a'ker), siege of, 258 

A-crop'o-lis, 81, 96-97 

Act of Settlement, 400, 426 

Act of Supremacy, 341-342 

Act of Union, 589 

Actium (ak'shi-um), battle of, 183 

A-dri-an-o'ple, battle of, 212 ; in Balkan 
Wars, 623, 624 

JEgean (e-je'an) Sea and Islands, 60, 
61 ; named, 68 

i^-ne'as, 136 

/E-o'li-ans, 63 

^'qui-ans, Roman war with, 149 

/Eschylus (es'ki-lus), 95, loi 

Aetius (a-e'shi-us), 214 

Africa, and Italy, 553; and France, 
569, 570; and Germany, 581; and 
Great Britain, 597-600, 722 

Agincourt (a-zhaN-koor'), battle of, 287 

Ag'o-ra, in Athens, 81 

A-gra'ri-an laws of Licinius, 145 ; of 
the Gracchi, 169; of Ca2sar, 179 

A-gric'o-la, Roman general, 196 



Agriculture, beginnings, 5 ; in Greece, 
63, 87-88; modern improvements, 
503; in France, 566; in Germany, 
582; in Denmark, 627; in Bel- 
giimi, 631 

Airplanes, 671-672, 687-688 

Aisne (an) River, battle, 657 

Aix-la-Chapelle (sha-pel'), Charle- 

_ magne's capital, 235 

A'jax, in Trojan War, 71 

Al'a-ric, Visigoth leader, 213 

Al'ba Lon'ga, 135 

Al-ba'ni-a, 620, 624, 651; dispute with 
Italy, 718 

Albert, king of Belgium, 631 

Albigenses (al-bi-jen'sez), 284 

Alcibiades (al-si-bi'a-dez), 118 

Al'cuin, 23s 

Alesia (a-le'shi-a), battle of, 176 

Al-ex-an'der I, of Russia, 481, 485, 486 

Alexander II, of Russia, 611 

Alexander III, of Russia, 612 

Alexander the Great, education, 
107; character, 123-124, 125; ex- 
ploits, 124-126; conquests, 126- 
129; empire, 129; death, 130; re- 
sults of conquests, 131 

Al-ex-an'dri-a, 74, 127; taken by 
Moslems, 228; Napoleon at, 474 

Al-fon'so XIII, king of Spain, 632 

Alfred the Great, 265-266 

Algeria (al-je'ri-a) , 569 

Al-ham'bra, 294, 295, 296 

Al'len-by, General, 688, 697 

Allies, in World War, 650 

Alphabet, i, 11, 57; Egyptian, 35; 
Phoenician, 56, 57, 64; Greek, 64, 67 

Al-phe'us River, 68, 76 

Alps, 133-134, 634; Hannibal crosses, 
157; Napoleon crosses, 477 

Alsace (al-sas'), 236; French, 377 



XVI 



Index 



Alsace-Lorraine, after Franco-Prussian 
War, s6o, 571, 572 ; after World War, 
703 

Al'va, Duke of, 369, 371 

America, discovery of, 309 

American Expeditionary Force, 679- 
682; transportation of, 679-680; 
training of, 681 ; in battles, 685- 
687, 690-693 

American Revolution, 441-442, 639 

Amiens (a-myaN'), treaty of, 477, 480 

Am'ster-dam, besieged, 407 

Ancient nations, reviewed, 218-220 

An-dro-ni'cus, author, 168 

Angles, 211, 218, 264 

Anne of Austria, queen of France, 404 

Antioch (an'ti-6k), in crusades, 257 

Antitoxins, 643 

An'to-ny, Mark, 181, 182, 183, 184 

Ant'werp, taken by Germans, 657 

Aph-ro-di'te, goddess, 74 

A' pis, Egyptian deity, 31 

A-pol'lo, god, 73, 74, 75 

Ap'pi-an Way, 147, 189 

Ap' pi-US Clau'di-us, 147, 189 

Aq'ue-duct, Claudian, 147 

A-ra'bi-a, 38, 43; religion, 226; Mo- 
hammed in, 226, 227; freed from 

^ Turkey, 662, 696-697, 721 

Ar'a-gon, kingdom, 295 

Ar-be'la, battle of, 128-129 

Ar-ca'di-a, 65 

Ar-ca'di-us, emperor, 212 

Architecture, Egyptian, 32-34; Baby- 
lonian, 51; Greek, 94, 96-97; By- 
zantine, 217; medieval, 313 

Archons (ar'konz), 82 

Argentina (ar-jen-te'na), 636 

Ar-go-nau'tic Expedition, 70 

Argonne (ar-gon'), battle of, 690-693 

A'ri-an-ism, 222 

Aristides (ar-is-ti'dez), 120 

Aristotle (ar'is-tot-'l), 95, 106-107 

Ark'wright, Richard, 504, 505 

Ar-ma'da, Spanish, 356-357 

Ar-me'ni-a, 662, 720 

Ar-min'i-us, German leader, 187 

Ar'mi-stice, with Germany, 692-695 

Armor, medieval, 244 

Army, Spartan, 79; Roman, 145-146; 
Swedish, 376; Prussian, 558; Ger- 
man, 574, 648; American, 678-681 



Arras (a-ras'), battle of, 66g 

Art, prehistoric, 10; Egyptian, 32-34; 

Greek, 97; medieval, 311-313 
Arthur and the Round Table, 303 
Ar'yans, 14, 44 
Ash'down, battle of, 265 
Aspern (as'p3rn), battle of, 485 
As'quith, Herbert Henry, 592, 607 
Assembly of Notables, French, 445 
As-syr'i-a, rise of, 41, 48-50 
As'tor, Lady, in Parliament, 607 
Astrology, 52, 306 
Astronomy, 34, 52 
Ath-a-na'sians, 222 
A-the'na, 75, 81 

Ath'ens, founded, 66; government, 
81-82; life in, 81-89; in age of 
Pericles, 93-106; buildings in, 96- 
98; literature of, 100-106; in Persian 
wars. III— 114; war with Sparta, 
1 1 6- 1 1 9 
At'ti-ca, 65, 81 ; see Athens 
At'ti-la, Hun leader, 214, 220-221 
Augs'burg, battle of, 250-251; con- 
fession, 331; peace of, 332, 372 
Au-gus'tine, in England, 225 
Au-gus'tus (Octavius), 181-183; in 
Second Triumvirate, 182; first em- 
peror of Rome, 184; age of, 186- 
197 ; character of, 186 
Au-re'li-an, emperor, 200, 204 
Au-re'li-us, Marcus, emperor, 203 
Aus'ter-litz, battle of, 480, 481 
Austraha, 429, 494 ; history, 595 ; gov- 
ernment, 596-597; in World War, 
659, 672, 722 
Austria, 236; Hapsburgs in, 290; and 
Switzerland, 290; under Charles V, 
319; gains after war of Spanish Suc- 
cession, 409 ; wars with France, 460, 
473, 477, 480, 485, 487 ; in Congress 
of Vienna, 494; in Italy, 497, 540, 
543; conditions in, before 1848, 539- 
540; uprising of 1848, 540-543; war 
with Italy, 548-550; in Seven Weeks' 
War, 550, 554-555 ; union with Hun- 
gary, 555, see Austria-Hungary; 
after World War, 689, 704 
Austria-Hungary, in Balkans, 623; 
before 1914, 648, 650-651 ; war on 
Serbia, 651-652; Russian campaign, 
661 ; dissolved, 689 



Index 



xvu 



Au-toc'ra-cy, in igi4, 647 
Avignon (a-ve-nyoN'), 293, 320, 321 
Azerbaijan (a-zer-bi-jan'), 713 
A-zores', under Portugal, 633 

Ba'al, Semitic god, 153 

Bab'y-lon, 39-40, 42-44, 74; con- 
quered by Alexander, 129-130 

Bab-y-lo'ni-a, 38-44; life in, 45-48; 
government, 48; religion, 49; litera- 
ture, Si 

Babylonian Captivity, 293, 320 

Bacon, Roger, 307 

Bac-te'ri-a, 643 

Ba'den, independent, 480; in 1866, 
555; in German Empire, 572 

Bagdad (bag-dad'), founded, 227; 
railroad, 650 

Baku (ba-koo') petroleum field, 713 

Balance of Power, 407, 409 

Balfour (bal'foor), Arthur, 603 

Balkans (bal-kanz' or bol'kanz), 620- 
623; wars, 623-624; Austro-Ger- 
man plans in, 650 ; campaigns in, 
662-663. See Bulgaria, Serbia, etc. 

Bal'tic provinces of Russia, 616-617; 
after the World War, 711-712 

Bank of France, 478, 479 

Bankers, Roman, 171-172 

Baptists, in England, 400 

Barbed wire, in World War, 670 

Barricades, in Paris, 529, 533 

Bastille (bas-tel'), 413, 436, 437; fall 
of, 448-450 ; key of, 449 

Battle of the Nations, 487 

Ba-va'ri-a, 233; kingdom, 480; in 
1866, 555 ; in German Empire, 572 

Bayeux (ba-yu') tapestry, 268, 269 

Bea'cons-field, Lord (Disraeli), 585, 
587-588, 622 

Beatty (be'ti). Admiral, 667 

Beccaria (bek-ka-re'a), author, 438 

"Beggars," Dutch party, 369 

Behistun (ba-his-toon') rock, 46 

Bel, Semitic god, 49 

Belgium, 371 ; annexed to Holland, 
4Q3, 495 ; independence, 530, 531; 
modern, 629, 630-631; in World 
War, 653-654, 655; gains from the 
war, 703 

Bel-i-sa'ri-us^ Roman general, 217 

Bell, Alexander G., inventor, 644 



Belleau (bel-l6') Wood, 685-686 

Ben'e-dict, Saint, 223 

Benevolent Despots, 438-439 

Ben-gal', acquired by British, 428-429 

Ber-lin', taken by Napoleon, 481; 
Congress of, 587, 621-623; after the 
World War, 705, 706 

Berlin Decree, 483 

Bernadotte (bur-na-dot'), 482, 487, 494 

Ber'nard, Saint, 258 

Bes'se-mer, Henry, inventor, 644 

Bible, translations: Wyclif, 322; 
Luther, 328; authorized version, 380 

Bill of Rights, 399-400 

Bishops, trial of, 397-398 

Bis'marck, Otto von, Prussian states- 
man, 554, 555, 557, 558; Ems dis- 
patch, 558, 560-561 ; German chan- 
cellor, 573-578 ; at Congress of Berlin, 
622; faU of, 579 

Black Death, 286 

Black Fellows, i, 7 

Black Hole of Calcutta, 428 

Black Prince, 286 

Blanc (blaN), Louis, 534, 535 

Blenheim (blen'em), battle of, 409 

Bliicher (blli'Krr), general, 489 

Boeotia (be-6'shi-a), 66 

Boers (boorz), 597-598; war with 
British, 598 

Bo-he'mi-a, 29$; rebellion (Hussite 
War), 323; in Thirty Years' War, 
372-373; revolt of 1848, 541; in 
World War, 715 

Boleyn (bool'in), Anne, 339 

Bolsheviki (bol-she-ve-ke'), in Rus- 
sia, 668, 709-711; in Germany, 705; 
in Poland, 709; in Russian border 
lands, 711-713; in Hungary, 713 

Bul'she-vism, 709-710; see Bolsheviki 

Bo'na-parte, Jerome, 482, 487 

Bonaparte, Joseph, 482, 484, 497 

Bonaparte, Louis, 482 

Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon, 536; see 
Napoleon HI 

Bonaparte, Napoleon, see Napoleon 

Bon'i-face, Saint, 225, 231 

Boniface VIII, pope, 285 

Book of the Dead, 31, 32, 34 

Books, papyrus, 36; Babylonian, 46; 
in Greece, 84; in Rome, 141 ; medie- 
val, 223, 247-248 



XVlll 



Index 



Bosnia (boz'ni-a), 623, 650, 651 

Bos'po-rus, 208, 7ig 

Bosworth (boz'wurth) Field, 337 

Botha (bo'ta), Boer leader, 599 

Bourbon (boor'bun) dynasty, in France, 
366, 404, 462, 487-488, 493; last 
of, 500-501 ; party of, 531-532 

Bourbons, in Spain and Naples, 409, 496 

Bouvines (boo-ven'), battle of, 272 

Boxers, in China, 640 

Boyne (boin), battle of the, 399 

Brandenburg (bran'den-boorK), 415; 
see Prussia 

Brazil, 633, 636 

Breitenfeld (bri'ten-felt), battle of, 376 

Bright, John, 525 

Britain, invaded by Csesar, 176; con- 
quered by Rome, 189; conquered by 
Angles, etc., 218, 264; see England 

British Empire, 593-602; after World 
War, 722, 725; see Great Britain 

British North America Act, 601 

Bronze Age, 2 

Browning, Robert, poet, 602 

Brunswick, Duke of, 460, 461 

Bru'tus, 180, 182, 184 

Budget, of Great Britain, 604 

Bul-ga'ri-a, conquered by Turks, 620, 
621; gains independence, 621-623; 
in Balkan wars, 624; in World War, 
663, 688; after the war, 699, 705 

Bundesrat (boon'des-rat), 572 

Bun'yan, John, author, 395, 401 

Bureaucrats, of Russia, 610-61 1 

Burghley (bfir'li), Lord, 353 

Bur-gun'di-ans, 211, 215 

Burns, Robert, poet, 602 

By'ron, Lord, aids Greece, 499 

By-zan'tine architecture, 217 

Byzantine Empire, 317; see Eastern 
Empire 

Caaba (ka'a-ba), 226 

Cabinet, British, 400, 401, 517 

Cab'ot, John, explorer, 337 

Cad'mus, legend of, 67 

Caesar (se'zar), Julius, 174-175; in 
Gaul, 175-176; crosses Rubicon, 177- 
178; master of the world, 178-179; 
policy of, 179-180; reforms the cal- 
endar, 34; death, 180-181, 184-185; 
author, 195 



Caesar Augustus, see Augustus 
Cagliostro (kal-yos'tro). Count, 439-440 
Calais (k3,l'a or ka-le'), held by Eng- 
land, 289; taken by France, 352; 

German drive for, 657 
Calendar, Egyptian, 34; of Caesar, 

34; Gregorian, 34; Chaldean, 52; 

under French Republic, 462 
Cal'mar, Union of, 297 
Cal'vin, John, 336-337, 343 
Cambrai (kaN-bre'), battle of, 669 
Ca-mil'lus, Roman leader, 150 
Camouflage (ka-mC73-flazh'), 680 
Cam'po For'mi-o, treaty of, 473 
Campus Martius (mar'shi-us), 143, 144, 

146 
Canada, 429, 442, 494, 593 ; history, 

600-601 ; government of, 601-602 ; 

in World War, 659, 682 
Canals, in England, 509 
Can'nae, battle of, 158 
Canning, George, 498, 515 
Cannon, early use of, 280, 281 ; in 

World War, 670 
Ca-nos'sa, emperor and pope at, 254 
Can'ter-bur-y Cathedral, 386 
Canterbury Tales, 303 
Ca-nute', king of England, 266 
Cape Colony, 494, 597, 598 
Ca'pet (or ka-pe'), Hugh, 283 
Capetian (ka-pe'shan) dynasty, 283 
Capitalists, in England, 506, 507, 508 
Carls'bad decrees, 496 
Carnot, Lazare (la-zar' kar-no'), 464 
Car-o-lin'gi-an dynasty, 232 
Carson, Edward, 592 
Car-taph'i-lus, Wandering Jew, 307 
Carthage (kar'thaj), founded, 56, 152; 

wars with Rome, 1 5 2-1 61 ; destroyed, 

161 ; rebuilt, 179 
Cart'wright, Edmund, 431, 505 
Case'ment, Sir Roger, 725 
Cassius (kash'i-us), 180, 182 
Caste, in England, 358, 605 
Castile (kas-tel'), kingdom, 295 
Castles, medieval, 242-244 
Cat'a-pult, 259 

Cathedrals, in Middle Ages, 313 
Cath'er-ine, wife of Henry VIII, 339-. 

341 
Catherine II, the Great, of Russia, 
424; benevolent despot, 438-439 



Index 



XIX 



Catherine de Medici, 364 
Catholic Church, Roman, 224; reforms 
by Gregory VII, 253 ; schism in, 
320-321; in Reformation, 344; 
and Council of Trent, 346; com- 
pared with Protestant church, 346- 
347; in France, 435, 456-457, 478, 
567-569; in Germany, 575-576 
CathoUc Emancipation Act, 515, 584 
Cat'i-hne, Roman conspirator, 174 
Ca'to, Roman statesman, 160, 165 
Caucasian (ko-ka'shan), race, 12 ; di- 
visions of, 14 
Caudine (ko'din) Forks, battle of, 150 
Cavahers (kav-a-lerz'), English party, 

389 
Cavalry, in World War, 671 
Cavour (ka-voor'), Count, 546-550 
Cecrops (se'krops), legend of, 66 
Censor, Roman officer, 143-144 
Central Powers, in World War, 650 
Ceres (se'rez), goddess, 73 
Chaldea (kal-de'a), 38, 44; see also 

Babylonia 
Chaldeans, 43; astrology of, 51-52 
Chalons (sha-loN'), battle of, 214-221 
Chamber of Deputies, French, 564, 565 
Cham'ber-lain, Joseph, 591 
Chambord (shaN-bor), Duke of, 563 
Champollion (shaN-pol-yoN') , 29 
Chan'cel-lor, German, 573 
Chariot, Egyptian, 26, 27, 29; Assyrian, 

49; Roman, 190; races, 194, 195 
Charlemagne (shar'le-man), 232-233; 
empire of, 233; crowned, 233-234; 
character, 235 
Charles V, emperor, genealogy, 319; 
dominions of, 319; summons Luther, 
327-328; and Reformation, 330- 
332; in reHgious wars, 331, 332; 
retires, 332, 484 
Charles, emperor of Austria, 689 
Charles I, king of England, 383-391 
Charles II, of England, 392, 395—397 
Charles VII, king of France, 287, 288 
Charles IX, of France, 364 
Charles X, of France, 500-501, 528, 530 
Charles IV, king of Spain, 484 
Charles XII, king of Sweden, 422 
Charles Albert, of Sardinia, 542, 546 
Charles the Bald, 236 
Chateau-Thierry (sha-to'-tyar-re'), 685 



Chatham (chat' am), Earl of, 429; see 
Pitt, WilHam 

Chaucer, Geoffrey (jef'ri cho'ser), 303, 
386 

Cheops (ke'ops), pharaoh, 29, 33 

Children, Spartan, 80 ; Athenian, 85 ; 
Roman, 140-141 ; crusade of, 260- 
261 ; in factory system, 522-523 

Children's Crusade, 260-261 
-Chile (che'la), 636 

China, encroachments by European 
countries, 581, 640; war with Japan, 
615; opening of, 640; Boxer move- 
ment, 640-641 ; revolution, 641-642 

Chivalry, 245-247 

Christchurch College, Oxford, 338 

Christian IV, king of Denmark, 373 

Christian IX, of Denmark, 626 

Christianity, beginnings, 187-189, 204; 
persecutions, 189, 205, 206; in 
Rome, 206-208, 209 ; and Clovis, 
215, 231; among Teutons, 222-225; 
and Charlemagne, 232. See also 
Catholic Church, etc. 

Church, see Catholic Church, Church 
of England, Greek church, etc. 

Church of England, 342; creed of, 
343 ; imder Elizabeth, 355 ; es- 
tabhshed, 395-396 ; disestablished 
in Ireland, 590 

Cicero (sis'er-5), 171, 190; against 
Catiline, 174; death of, 182; as 
author, 195 

Cid (sid), Spanish hero, 302 

Cin-cin-na'tus, Roman hero, 149 

Cis-al'pine Gaul, 149; conquered by 
Rome, 155; under Caesar, 175 

Cities, Egyptian, 27; Babylonian, 
39; Greek, 97; Rome, 199; growth 
of, 280-283; German, 291; Itahan, 
291-292 

City-states, 39, 65 

Clau'di-us, emperor, 189 

Clemenceau (kla-maN-so'), French pre- 
mier, 684, 701-702 

Clem'ent VII, pope, 320, 321 

Cle-o-pa'tra, 178, 182, 183 

Cleves (klevz), acquired by Bran- 
denburg, 415 

Clive, Robert, 428, 429 

Clo-til'da, wife of Clovis, 215 

Clo'vis, king of the Franks, 215, 231 



XX 



Index 



Cnossus (nos'us), city of Crete, 6i, 62 
Coalition against France, first, 464; 

second, 475 ; third, 480 
Cobden, Richard, 525 
Code, Justinian, 217 
Code Napoleon, 478 
Code of Hammurabi, 40, 45 
Coeur de Lion (kur de le-6N'), 270; see 

Richard I 
Colbert (kol-bar'), 405, 406 
Col'et, John, 311, 339 
Coligny (ko-len'ye). Admiral, 363, 364 
Colonization, Phoenician, 56; Greek, 

8g-gi, 131; British, 426-429, 494, 

593-602; French, 426, 478, 569- 

570; German, 580-582, 722 
Co-los-se'um, Roman, 200 
Co-los'sus of Rhodes, 74 
Co-lum'ba, Saint, 224 
Columbus, Christopher, 292, 293, 296, 

309 

Comitia (ko-mish'i-a) Cen-tu-ri-a'ta, 
142, 143, 145 

Comitia Cu-ri-a'ta, 142 

Comitia Tri-bu'ta, 145 

Commerce, 19; of Egypt, 27-28; of 
Phoenicia, 56, 64; stimulated by 
crusades, 262; modern, 512-513 

Commons, House of, 277, 382; re- 
forms in, 516-520, 588; power of, 
524, 606, 607 

Com'mune of Paris, 462, 562 

Compass, mariner's, 308 

Compurgation, 274 

Con-cor'dat of Worms (v5rms), 254 

Concordat, between papacy and France, 
478; annulled, 569 

Confederation of the Rhine, 480 

Congregationalists, in England, 400 

Conservatives, in England, 584, 586, 
590, 591 

Con' stance. Council of, 321, 323 

Con' Stan-tine, king of Greece, 688 

Constantino the Great, 206-208 

Con-stan-ti-no'ple, founded, 208; capi- 
tal of Eastern Empire, 212; under 
Justinian, 217; taken by crusaders, 
259; taken by Turks, 289, 317: after 
the World War, 719 

Constituent Assembly, of France, 447 

Consulate, in France, 476 

Consuls, of Rome, 142, 143 



Continental System, of Napoleon, 

483, 485 
Convention, French, 462-469 
Cook, Captain James, 595-596 
Co-per'ni-cus, astronomer, 310, 430 
Corday (kor-de'), Charlotte, 467 
CordeHer (kor-de-ler') party, 454 
Cor'inth, 65, 91; destroyed, 162; re- 
built, 179 
Co-rin'thi-an architecture, 94 
Corn laws, of Rome, 192; of England, 

repealed, 524-525, 584 
Corneille (kor-na'y'), author, 411 
Cor-ne'li-a, Roman matron, 168 
Cor'tes, Spanish legislature, 632, 633 
Cos'sacks, 613, 618, 713 
Cotton industry, in England, 502 
Council, Church, 208, 321, 323, 346 
Council of Blood, Netherlands, 369 
Counter Reformation, 344-346 
Coup d'etat (koU da-ta'), of Napoleon 

in, 536-537 

Court of High Commission, 387, 388 

Craftsmen, 282, 283 

Cranmer, Thomas, 341, 343, 352 

Cras'sus, Roman leader, 175 

Crecy (kra-se'), battle of, 285, 286 

Crete (kret), 57, 61, 62, 67 

Cri-me'an War, 547, 556, 621 

Cro'ats, 298, 716-718 

Croe'sus, story of, 58-59 

Cromp'ton, Samuel, inventor, 504 

Crom'well, Oliver, leader in Civil War, 
388-391 ; during commonwealth, J91- 
395 ; Lord Protector, 392-394; charac- 
ter, 394-395 

Cromwell, Richard, 394 

Cromwell, Thomas, 341 

Crusades, 255-263; causes, 255; first, 
256-258; later, 258-261; children's, 
260; results, 261-263 

Culture, Greek, 94-106; Roman, 167- 
168, 189-197; in the Middle Ages 
304-314 

Cu-ne'i-form writing, 46, 47 

Curie (kii-re'), Pierre and Marie, 645 

Cu'ri-us, Roman general, 165 

Cy'prus, 90; annexed by British, 662 

Cy'rus the Great, 44-45, 54, 58-59 

Czechoslovakia (chek-o-slo-vak'i-a) , 
republic, 714-716, 703 

Czechs (cheks), 298, 541, 715 



Index 



XXI 



D'Alembert (da-laN-bar'), French 
mathematician, 437 

Dalhousie (dal-hoo'zi), Marquis of, 595 

Dane'geld, 265 

Danes, and Charlemagne, 233 ; in 
England, 264, 265, 266 

b'Annunzio (dan-noon'dze-o), 718 

Dan'te, Italian poet, 303 

Danton (daN-toN'), French revolutionist, 
4Sg, 460, 461, 467 ; death of, 468 

Dan'zig, free citv, 704 

Dardanelles (dar-da-nelz'), 662, 719 

Da-ri'us I, of Persia, 45, 108-111 

Darius III, 126, 127, 128, 129 

Dark Ages, 218, 300 

Darwin, Charles, scientist, 602 

Dau'phin, of France, 287 

David, Hebrew king, 54 

Declaration of Indulgence, by James 
n, 397 

Delcasse (del-ka-sa'), French states- 
man, 649 

Del'phI, oracle of, 3S, 75, 90 

De-me'ter, goddess, 73, 88 

Democracy, of Hebrews, 53, 54; of 
Greeks, 81-84, no, 119; of Teu- 
tons, 210; in England, 358, 391- 
392, S18; taught by French Revo- 
lution, 470-471 ; spread of, 638- 
642, 702 ; eflBciency of, 677-678 

Demosthenes (de-mos'the-nez), 95, 103- 
104, 123 

Denmark, 297; loses Norway, 494; 
defeated by Prussia and Austria, 
554; modern, 626-627; gain after 
World War, 704 

Departments, of France, 457, 566 

Descartes (da-kart'), 411 

Desmoulins, Camille (ka-mel' da-moo- 
laN'), 449, 452, 468 

Destroyers, naval vessels, 677 

Diamond Necklace, 457-458 

Dl-an'a, goddess, 74 

Dias (de'ash), Bartholomeu, 309 

Dickens, Charles, novelist, 602 

Diderot (ded-ro'), French author, 437 

Diocletian (di-o-kle'shan), 205-206 

Dl-o-ny'sus, 88; theater of, 100 

Directory, French, 469, 472, 474, 475 

Dis-cob'o-lus, statue, 76 

Disraeli (diz-ra'li) , Benjamin, premier, 
58s, 587-588, 622 



Divine right of kings, 379, 397, 405, 

494-495, 574, 580 
Domestic animals, 5, 16, 18 
Domestic system of industry, 503 
Do'ri-ans, 63 
Dor'ic architecture, 94 
Drafts, in World War, 678, 679 
Drake, Sir Francis, 357 
Drama, Greek, 100 
Dreadnaught, naval vessel, 666 
Dress, 16, 18; of Assyrians, 49; of 

Greeks, 89; of Persian warriors, 113; 

of Romans, 165; of Goths, 211; of 

Frankish ladies, 236; medieval, 

249 ; of French, 434, 538 
Drogheda (dro'he-da), massacre at, 392 
Dru'ids, Celtic priests, 20 
Dru'sus, Roman general, 187 
Dryden, John, poet, 401 
Dublin, view of, 726 
Duma (doo'ma), Russian assembly, 

618 
Dumouriez (dii-moj-rya'), 462, 464 
Duplek (dii-pleks'), 427-428, 442 
Dutch Republic, 371 ; see HoUand 

East India Company, British, 427 
Eastern Empire, separation from the 
West, 212; under Justinian, 217; 
conquered by crusaders, 259; fall 
of, 317 
Eastern Rou-me'li-a, 623 
Ebert (a'bert), Frederick, 705, 706 
Ec-cle'si-a, Athenian assembly, 82, 83 
Eck, Dr. John, refutes Luther, 326 
Ed'i-son, Thomas A., inventor, 644 
Education, in Egypt, -25; among 
Babylonians, 46-47; among Greeks, 
80, 85-87; among Romans, 140- 
141; under Charlemagne, 235; in 
early England, 265 ; in Middle 
Ages, 304-305 ; in England, 337- 
339; in France, 470, 567; in Italy, 
553; in Germany, 582-583; in 
Great Britain, 585-586; in Scan- 
dinavia, 627; in Holland, 629; in 
Belgium, 630 
Edward III, king of England, 285, 286 
Edward VI, of England, 343, 351. 353 
Edward VII, of Great Britain, 603 
Edward the Confessor, 266, 267 
Eg'bert, king of England, 264 



I 



XXll 



Index 



Egypt (e'jipt), ancient, 23-36; life in, 
24-28; government, 29-30; de- 
cline of, 30; religion, 30-32; archi- 
tecture, 32-34; sciences, 34; writ- 
ing, 34-36 ; influence on civilization, 
36; conquered by Assyria, 41; 
conquered by Alexander, 127-128; 
Roman province, 183; taken by 
Moslems, 228; Napoleon in, 474; 
under Ismail, 599; British in, 599, 
600, 662; after World War, 722, 725 

Eiffel (ef-el') Tower, 567 

El'ba, Napoleon in, 487, 488 

Electors, German, 289, 318 

Electricity, 644-645 

Elephants, used in battle, 128, 151, 157 

Elizabeth, queen of England, 341 ; 
reign of, 353-362 ; and the Church, 
353-355; times of, 357-361; and 
Earl of Essex, 361-362 

E-man'u-el, king of Portugal, 634 

Em'den, cruise of, 666 

Emigrants, from French Revolution, 
454, 460 

Empire, Holy Roman, foimded, 233- 
234; under Otto and later, 250- 
255, 289-290; decline of, 318, 377; 
extinguished, 480 

Ems dispatch, 560-561 

Encyclopedia, French, 437 

England, named, 218, 264; in Middle 
Ages, 264-278; before Alfred, 264; 
Norman conquest, 267; Plantag- 
enet kings, 270-272; wars with 
France, 285-289; War of Roses, 
337; Reformation in, 341-343; 
under Elizabeth, 353-361 ; defeats 
Armada, 356-357; under the Stu- 
arts, 379-391, 395-398; civil war, 
389-391; Commonwealth, 391-395; 
wars with Dutch, 393, 396; Res- 
toration, 395-398; Revolution, 397- 
398; under William III, 398-401; 
in eighteenth century, 426-432 ; see 
Great Britain 

English Church, see Church of England 

Enghsh language, 301 

EngHsh Hterature, 302, 359-361, 395, 
401, 602 

Entente (aN-taNt'), Triple, 650 

Ep-ic-te'tus, Roman philosopher, 196 

E-pl'rus, 66; war with Rome, 1 50-1 51 



Episcopal Church, 355 

Equites (ek'wi-tez), Roman class, 167 

Erasmus (e-raz'mus), author, 311, 339 

Erectheum (er-ek-the'um), 98 

Essex, Earl of, 361-362 

Es-tho'ni-ans, 616; republic of Es-, 

thonia, 71 1-7 12 
E-thi-o'pi-a, 12, 29 
E-trus'cans, 136 
Eu-gene', of Savoy, 409 
Eugenie (u-zha-ne'), empress of France, 

538, 539 
Euphrates (u-fra'tez) River, 38 
Euripides (u-rip'i-dez), 95, 102 
Eux'e-nus, story of, 91 
Exclusion Bill, 396, 397 
Excommunication, 253 
Exploration, medieval, 307-309 

Fa'bi-us, Quintus, 157-158 
Factory laws, British, 508, 523 
Factory system, rise of, 506-508; re- 
sults, 512-513 
Fawkes (foks), Guy, conspiracy of, 381 
Feisal (fa- sal'), Arabian leader, 696 
Fer'di-nand II, emperor, 372, 373, 375 
Ferdinand, king of Bulgaria, 688 
Ferdinand, king of Spain, 295, 296 
Ferdinand VII, of Spain, 496, 497, 631, 

632 
Feudalism, 238-245 ; character of, 247 ; 

decline of, 280 
Fiefs, 238, 239, 240 

Finland, 422, 494, 616, 617; inde- 
pendence, 668, 711 
Fire, 7, 69 

Fiume (fyoo'ma), dispute over, 717-718 
Fla-min'i-an Way, 155 
Fla-mln'i-us, Roman general, 155, 157 
Flax industry, 630 
Flem'ings, in Belgium, 630 
Flor'ence, Italian city, 291, 293 
Flying machines, 671-672, 687-688 
Foch (fosh). Marshal, 684-690 
Fonck, French airman, 687 
Fontainebleau (foN-ten-blo') palace, 

408; abdication at, 487 
Food, of prehistoric man, 18; of 
Egyptians, 25 ; of gods, 72 ; of 
Greeks, 88; of Romans, i6s; of 
medieval people, 248-249; in six- 
teenth century, 340 



Index 



XXlll 



Fools, court, 24g 

For-mo'sa, acquired by Japan, 615 
France, ancient Gaul, 91, 175-176; 
beginnings of, 215, 231, 236, 283; 
feudalism in, 239; Capetian rulers 
of, 283-284; medieval, 284-285; 
wars with England, 285-289; under 
Richelieu, 377; after Thirty Years' 
War, 377; under Louis XIV, 403- 
41 1 ; after treaty of Utrecht, 409 ; 
in eighteenth century, 426-432 ; in 
India, 427-429; on eve of Revolu- 
tion, 433-438; government, 433; 
classes, 434-436; life of common 
people, 435-436; under Louis XV, 
442 ; under Louis XVI, 442-455 ; 
under National Assembly, 450- 
457 ; departments of, 457 ; under 
Legislative Assembly, 459-462 ; 
First Republic, 462-475 ; terror, 
465-468; results of Revolution, 
469-471; war with Austria, 472- 
473 ; end of Directory, 475 ; under 
Napoleon, 476-491; First Empire, 
479-491 ; at Congress of Vienna, 
493 ; in Holy Alliance, 497 ; aids 
Greece, 500; in 1815-1830, 500-501; 
Revolution of 1830, 528-530; revo- 
lution of 1848, 531-537; Second Re- 
public, 535-537; Second Empire, 
537-539, 555-557; aids Italy, 548- 
549; war with Prussia, 557-560; 
Third Republic, 562-564; civil war, 
562; parties in, 563; government, 
564-566; progress, 566-567; separa- 
tion of church and state, 567-569; 
colonial expansion, 569-570; opposi- 
tion of Bismarck after 1871, 575; 
in Egypt, 599-600; and advance of 
democracy, 639; in China, 640; 
and Morocco, 649-650; at war with 
Germany, 652; invaded, 655, 656; 
Verdun besieged, 664; after the 
World War, 703, 724 
Francis I, king of France, 331 
Francis II, of France, 355, 364 
Francis Ferdinand,, Archduke, 651 
Francis Joseph, emperor of Austria, 541 
Franco-Prussian War, 557-560, 631 
Frankfort Parliament, German, 543, 554 
Franks, 211, 215: kingdom of, 231- 
232 



Frederick, king of Bohemia, 373 
Frederick I, king of Prussia, 416 
Frederick II, the Great, of Prussia. 

417-419, 424, 438 
Frederick III, of Prussia and the Ger- 
man Empire, 579 
Frederick Bar-ba-ros'sa, emperor, 258 
Frederick the Wise, protects Luther, 

327, 328, 330 
Frederick William (the Great Elector), 

of Prussia, 415-416 
Frederick William I, king of Prussia, 

416-417 
Frederick William IV, of Prussia, 543, 

544, 554 
Free trade, in England, 526 
Freemen of the Middle Ages, 240 
French and Indian War, 429 
French language, 301 
French literature, 411, 436-438 
French Revolution, 433-471 ; eve of, 
433-438; causes of, 441-442; meet- 
ing of States-General, 445-448; 
taking of the Bastille, 448-450; 
leaders, 450; National Assembly, 
450-457 ; Legislative Assembly, 459- 
462 ; National Convention, 462 ; 
Terror, 465-466 ; results of the Revo- 
lution, 469-471 
Friars, 223 

Friedland (fred'lant), battle of, 481 
Fronde (frond). War of, 405 
Fulton, Robert, inventor, 509, 510 
Furniture, Egyptian, 24; Roman, 190 

Ga'bri-61, Mohammedan beliefs con- 
cerning, 226, 227 

Galicia (ga-lish'i-a). World War in, 
658, 661, 668 

Gal-i-le'o, scientist, 310 

Galleys, 436 

Gallipoli (gal-le'p6-le) campaign, 662 

Ga'ma, Vasco da, explorer, 309 

Gam-bet'ta, French leader, 559 

Garibaldi (ga-re-bal'de), 548, 549 

Gas, used in warfare, 664, 672 

Gasoline motor, 645 

Gaul, Caesar in, 175-176; Visigoths in, 
213; see France 

Gauls, conquer Rome, 149-150, 157; 
conquered by Caesar, 176 

Ge-ne'va, Swiss city, 336, 634 



XXIV 



Index 



Genoa (jen'u-a), Italian city, 2g2 
Genseric (jen'stir-ik), Vandalleader, 213 
George I, king of Great Britain, 426-427 
George III, of Great Britain, 514 
George IV, of Great Britain, 514 
George V, of Great Britain, 594, 603 
George, Lloyd, 603, 604, 701, 725 
Georgia, republic, 713 
Germ theory of disease, 643 
German Confederation, 493 
German Empire, medieval, see Empire 
German Empire, modern, 560; gov- 
ernment of, 571-574, 647; Triple 
Alliance, 575; socialists in, 576-579; 
colonies, 580-582; development, 582- 
583; in 1914, 640, 647-651, 698; 
at Hague Conferences, 642, 649; 
public opinion, 647 ; autocracy, 
647-648; ambitions of, 648-650; 
in Turkey, 650; upholds Austrian 
plans, 650, 651, 652 ; in World War, 
652-694; at close of 1914, 659; 
campaign in Russia, 661 ; in naval 
war, 666-667 ; war methods, 673- 
674; at beginning of 1918, 682; 
peace with Russia and Roumania, 682 ; 
final drive, 683-685 ; fall of, 693-694 
Germans, defeat Rome, 1 87 ; origin, 

210; tribes, 211; 5ee a/50 Teutons 
Germany, origin, 210, 236; converted, 
225; under Otto, 250-251; union 
with Italy, 251, 289; under Henry 
IV, 254; government in Middle 
Ages, 289-291, 318; Reformation 
in, 324-332 ; in Thirty Years' War, 
372-377; and Napoleon, 480-487, 
492 ; changes in, 492 ; and Con- 
gress of Vienna, 493-494; before 
1848, 540; revolt of 1848, 543-544; 
new German Empire, 554-560, see 
German Empire; in World War, 
see German Empire; terms of peace, 
702-704; after the war, 705-707, 725 
Gibraltar (ji-brol'ter), acquired by 

Great Britain, 409 
Gi-ron'dist party, 454, 459, 464, 465 
Glad'i-a-tors, Roman, 193-194 
Gladstone (glad' stun), William E., pre- 
mier, 585-586, 588, 590, 591; re- 
tirement of, 592 ; and Boers, 598 
Godfrey, ruler of Jerusalem, 257 
Gods, of Egypt, 31-32 ; of Assyria, 



49-51; of Greece, 72-75; of Rome, 
138-139 

Goethe (g{i'te), author, 419 

Golden Fleece, 70 

Gor'di-an knot, 126 

Goths, 211 

Government, 6, 18; in ancient Egypt, 
30 ; in Babylonia, 48-49 ; of Athens, 
81-84; of Rome, 142-144, 170, 
186, 203-204; of Great Britain, 
517-518, 607, see ParHament; of 
France, 564-566; of German Em- 
pire, 571-574; of British colonies, 
595-602; of Russia, 610-611, 618, 
710; of Norway and Sweden, 628- 
629; of Holland, 629; of Belgium, 
631 ; of Spain, 632 ; of Portugal, 
633; of Switzerland, 635; spread of 
democracy, 638-642, 702 ; new gov- 
ernment of Germany, 706 

Gracchus (grak'us), Ga'ius, 168; re- 
forms of, 169-170 

Gracchus, Ti-be'ri-us, 168, 169 

Gra-na'da, kingdom, 295, 296 

Grand Remonstrance, 389 

Gravelotte (grav-lot'), battle of, 559 

Great Britain, 383, see also Britain and 
England; after war of Spanish Suc- 
cession, 409; colonial expansion, 
426-429; industrial progress, 430- 
432 ; war with Revolutionary France, 
464, 472, 474, 477; Napoleonic wars, 
480-482, 483, 485, 489 ; gains in Con- 
gress of Vienna, 494; opposes Met- 
ternich, 497; aids Greece, 500; 

■ United Kingdom, 514; reforms in, 
514-526; government of, 517-518, 
607; after 1850, 584-607; reforms, 
585-586, 588; Irish questions, 589- 
593 ; colonies, 593-602 ; Boer wars, 
598; in Egypt, 599-600; labor 
laws, 603-604; budget, 604; Cri- 
mean War, 621; and China, 640; 
and Moroccan question, 649-650; 
in World War, 654, 659, 662-667, 
669, 676, 683, 690; after the war, 
721-722, 725 

Great Charter, 272-273 

Great Elector (Frederick William), 
415-416 

Great Mutiny, in India, 595 

Great Schism, 320-321 



Index 



XXV 



Greece, ancient, 60-132, see Greeks; 
the country, 60-61 ; divisions of, 
65-66; conquered by Rome, 162 

Greece, modern, conquered by the 
Turks, 498, 619-620; revolution in, 
498-500; in Balkan wars, 623, 624; 
in World War, 663, 688; gains from 
the war, 718, 719 

Greek church, 297, 320, 617 

Greek literature, 99-104 

Greeks, ancient, i, 15, 62-63; early, 
63-64; divisions of, 65-66; myths 
of, 66-71; religion of, 71-75 ; games, 
7S~77; Spartans, 78-80; Athenians, 
81-89, 93-107 ; colonies of, 89-91 ; 
great men among, 95, 97-106; wars 
of, 108-120; character, 115-116; 
our heritage from, 1 19-120; in Italy, 
13s; influence on Rome, 167-168 

Greg'o-ry the Great, pope, 225 

Gregory VII, pope, 251-254 

Gregory XIII, pope, 34 

Grey, Earl, Whig leader, 517, 518, 519 

Grey, Lady Jane, 351, 352 

Guilds, 282, 283, 508 

Guillotine (gil'o-ten), 463, 466 

Guise (gii-ez'), Duke of, 364 

Guizot (ge-zo'), 532, 533, 534 

Gunpowder, invented, 244; use of, 
280, 285 

Gunpowder Plot, 380-382 

Gus-ta'vus A-dol'phus, king of Sweden, 
375,376,377; compared with Crom- 
well, 394-395 

Gutenberg (goo'ten-berK), John, 314 

Guynemer (gen-mer'), airman, 687 

Haakon (ho'kon) VII, king of Nor- 
way, 629 

Ha'be-as Cor'pus Act, 396 

Ha'dri-an, emperor, 189 

Hague (hag) Conferences, 642, 649 

Ha-mil'car Bar'ca, 155, 156 

Hamites (ham'Its), 14 

Hammurabi (ham-06-ra'be), 39-40; 
code of, 40, 45 

Hampden, John, 387, 388, 389, 390 

Hampton Court Conference, 380 

Hanging gardens of Babylon, 44 

Han'ni-bal, 155-156; crosses Alps, 157; 
battles of, 157-159; death of, 160; 
greatness of, 163-164 

EL. M. T. — 48 



Han'o-ver, annexed to Prussia, 555 

Hanover, House of, 373, 400 

Han-se-at'ic League, 291 

Hapsburgs, 289-290, 319, 332; after 
Thirty Years' War, 376, 377; hum- 
bled by Napoleon, 482 ; fall of, 
689 ; see also Austria 

Hargreaves (har'grevz), James, in- 
ventor, 431, 504, 506 

Har'old, of England, 267, 269, 277 

Hartmann, General von, quoted, 673 

Has'dru-bal, 158, 159 

Has'tings, battle of, 267, 268, 269 

Hebrews, see Jews 

Hedjaz (hej-az'), kingdom, 721 

Hegira (hej'i-ra or he-ji'ra), 227 

Hel'en, queen of Sparta, 7 1 

Hel'len, 60, 62 ; descendants of, 63 

Hel'lenes, 60; see Greeks 

Hel'les-pont, 70, 125 

Hel'ots, in Sparta, 78 

Henry IV, emperor of Germany, 254 

Henry II, king of England, 270, 274; 
and Ireland, 589 

Henry III, of England, 276 

Henry V, of England, 287 

Henry VII, of England, 337, 348 

Henry VIII, of England, 337-339; 
marriage and divorce, 339-340; 
head of church, 342 ; death, 343 ; 
and Ireland, 589 

Henry II, king of France, 247 

Henry IV, of France (Henry of Na- 
varre), 366 

Henry, Prince, of Portugal, 308 

Henry the Fowler, of Germany, 250 

Her-a-cle'a, battle of, 151 

Hercules (hftr'ku-lez), 68-69 

Her'mann, German leader, 187 

He-rod'o-tus, historian, 102 ; quoted, 
23, 28, 47, 58, 87*^ i^, 112, 113, 114 

Heroes of Greece, 66-lfi 

Hertz, scientist, 645 

Herzegovina (her-tse-go-ve'na), 623 

Hesse (hes), in 1866, 555 ; in German 
Empire, 572 

Hieroglyphics (hi-er-o-glif'iks), 28, 29, 

35, 57 
High Commission, Court of, 387, 388 
Hil'de-brand (Gregory VII), 251-254 
Hin'den-burg, von, German general, 

658, 661 



XXVI 



Index 



Hindenburg line, 6go 

History, i, 8-9; sources of, 9-10; 
divisions of, 1 1 

Hittites (hit'its), war with Egypt, 29 

Hohenlinden (lio-en-lin'den), battle of, 
477 

HohenzoUern (ho-en-tsul'ern), house of, 
415, 416; humbled by Napoleon, 
482 ; fall of, 70s ; see also Prussia 

Holland (Dutch Republic), inde- 
pendent, 371, 377; war with Eng- 
land, 393, 396; war with France, 
407, 409 ; under Napoleon, 482 : 
gains in 1815, 493, 495; loses Bel- 
gium, 530; in recent times, 629-630 

Holy Alliance, 496-497 

Holy Roman Empire, 233-235 ; see 
Empire 

Holy War, Turkish, 661, 662 

Homage, 239 

Home Rule, Irish, 591-593, 725 

Homer, poet, 72, 84, 99 

Homes, Oriental, 15, 24; Athenian, 
97; Roman, 165, 166, 189-190, 
192 ; medieval, 247 

Hong'kong', acquired by British, 640 

Ho-no'ri-us, emperor, 212, 213 

Hoover, Herbert, 701 

Hoplite (hop'ht), Greek soldier, in 

HQr'ace, poet, 195, 196; quoted, 192 

Horatius (ho-ra'shi-us), Roman hero, 
137-138 

Horse, 5, 10, 16, 18; in Egypt, 26, 27, 
29; Arabian, 262 

House of Commons, see Commons 

House of Lords, see Lords 

Hugo, Victor, quoted, 4S9-490 

Huguenots (hu'ge-nots), wars of, 363- 
368; under Louis XIV, 409-410; 
in America, 410; in Prussia, 416 

Hundred Years' War, 285-289 

Hun'ga-ry, settled, 251 ; in Counter 
Reformation, 346; revolt of 1848, 
541, 542 ; in Dual Monarchy, 555, 
see Austria-Hungary ; after the World 
War, 6S9, 705, 713-714 

Huns, 212; at Chalons, 214, 221 

Hus, John, reformer, 322-323 

Hussein (hoo-san'), king of Hedjaz, 
696-697 

Hus'site War, 323 

Hyk'sos, in Egypt, 29 



Il'i-ad, 71, 99, 124 

11-lyr'i-cum, acquired by Rome, 163 

Index, of Catholic Church, 346 

India, Alexander in, 129; acquired 
by British, 427-429, 595; govern- 
ment of, 152, 593, 595 

Indians, American, i, 5, 9, 10, 13, 35 

Indies, Dutch, 629-630 

Indo-China, French, 570, 580 

Indo-Europeans, 14, 44 

Indulgence, in Catholic Church, 324 

Industry, 6; among Greeks, 88-89; 
in the Middle Ages, 283 ; in France 
under Colbert, 405; in Prussia 
under Frederick II, 418; progress 
in, 430-432 ; early conditions of, 
502-503 ; domestic system, 503 ; 
inventions, 503-506; factory system, 
506-508; results, 512-513; factory 
reforms in England, 522-523; prog- 
ress in France, 566; in Germany, 
582 ; recent inventions, 644-645 

Initiative and referendum, 635 

Innocent III, pope, 261 ; and King 
John, 271 

Inquisition, 295-296; during Reforma- 
tion, 345-346; in Spain, 295, 368 

Interdict, in England, 271 

Inventions, 431-432, 503-506, 508- 
511; recent, 644-645 

In-ves'ti-ture conflict, 253, 254 

I-o'ni-ans, 63 

I-6n'ic architecture, 94- 

Ireland, converted, 224; imder Eliza- 
beth, 355; under Charles I, 385; 
conquered by Cromwell, 392 ; under 
WilUam and Mary, 399; in Parha- 
ment, 514; famine in, 526; history 
of, 589; land laws, 590-591; Home 
Rule question, 591-593, 725; during 
and after the World War, 725-726 

Iron, 2, 18, 49; production of, 503- 
504, 644 

Iron Age, 2, 18 

Iron Mask, Man in the, 413 

Ironsides, Cromwell's soldiers, 390 

Isabella, queen of Spain, 295, 296, 631 

Is'lam, 227 

Ismail (is-ma-el'), khedive, 599 

Israel (iz'ra-el), kingdom of, 54 

Is'sus, battle of, 126-127 

Italy, early colonies in, 91 ; the country, 



Index 



xxvu 



i33~i3S; early inhabitants, 135- 
136; conquered by Rome, 149- 
152; annexed by Otto, 251; in the 
Middle Ages, 289, 291-293; in the 
Renaissance, 310-313; Napoleon in, 
472-473, 475, 477, 482; in Congress 
of Vienna, 494; revolt of 1830, 531; 
before 1848, 540; revolt of 1848, 
S42-543; and Savoy, 546; imifica- 
tion of, 546-551; in Seven Weeks' 
war, 550; after 1870, SSI-SS3; de- 
clares neutrality, 654; enters World 
War, 663; Piave battle, 669; after 
the war, 717, 718 
Ivan (e-van' or i'van) the Great, 297 

Jac'o-bin party, 454, 459, 461, 464, 465 
James I, king of England, 356, 379-383 
James II, of England (Duke of York), 

396 ; reign, 397-398 ; in Ireland, 399 
Ja'nus, Roman god, 138, 149, 186 
Ja-pan', 614; war with China, 615; 

war with Russia, 615-616 ; in World 

War, 667; after the war, 722, 726 
Ja'son, Greek hero, 70 
Jel'li-coe, Admiral, 667 
Jena (ya'na), battle of, 481 
Je-ru'sa-lem, Jewish capital, 54, 43 ; 

taken by Pompey, 174; taken by 

Moslems, 228; in crusades, 257- 

260; captured by British, 669-670 
Jester, court, 249 
Jesuits (jez'u-its), 344-345 
Jesus Christ, 187-188; disciples of, 

188; recognized by Mohammed, 227 
Jews, or Hebrews, 5 ; captivity, 41, 45 ; 

history of, 53-54; religion, 55; 

literature of, 55-56; in Spain, 296; 

Zionist movement, 721 
Joan (jon) of Arc, 286-289 
Joffre (zho'fr), General, 655, 657, 684 
John, king of England, 278, 271-273 
John VI, king of Portugal, 633 
Jonson, Ben, poet, 359 
Joseph II, emperor of Austria, 439 
Josephine (j6'zef-en), empress, 473 
Ju'dah, Kingdom of, 54 
Ju-de'a, conquered by Rome, 174 
Jugo-Slavs (yoo'go-slavz), 298; after 

the World War, 701, 716-718 
Julian (jool'j'an) the A-pos'tate, 208 
July ordinances, in France, 528 



Junkers (yoong'kerz), 580, 705, 706 

Ju'pi-ter, 138; (or Zeus), 67, 68, 72, 76 

Jury, trial by, 274-276 

Justinian, emperor, 217; code of, 217 

Jutes, in Britain, 218 

Jutland, battle of, 667 

Kaiser (ki'zer), powers of, 571 ; down- 
fall of, 694, 704, 705 

Kamerun (ka-mi-roon'), 581 

Kant, German author, 419 

Kar'nak, hall of, 32, s:^ 

Kay, John, inventor, 504 

Ker' en-sky, Russian leader, 668 

Khedive (ke-dev'), of Egypt, 599, 600 

Khu'fu, pharaoh, 29, 33 

Kiaochow (kyou'cho'), taken by Ger- 
many, 582, 640; taken by Japan, 
667, 722 

Kief (ke'yef), capital of Ukraine, 712 

Kiel Canal, 651, 666 

King William's war, 407 

Knighthood, 245-247 

Knights, medieval, 244-247, 262 

Knights of St. John, 262 

Knights Templar, 262 

Knox, John, reformer, 343 

Kongo Free State, 631 

Koran (ko-ran'), the, 227 

Ko-re'a and Japan, 615, 616, 726 

Kosciusko (kos-i-iis'ko), 425 

Kossuth (kosh'oot), Louis, 542 

Kurdistan (koor-di-stan'), 719 

Labor, early law in England, 286; 

and capital, 506-508; reforms in 

England, 523, 603 
Lacedaemon (las-e-de'mon), see Sparta 
La-fa-yette', French revolutionary 

leader, 450-452, 459; leaves France, 

464; in Revolution of 1830, 528 
La Hogue (og), battle of, 399, 407 
Lake dwellers, 16, 17 
Land laws, Roman, 145, 169, 179; 

Irish, 590-591 
Langdon, Stephen, 272, 273 
Language, 7 ; divisions according to, 

13-14; of Rome, 203; modern 

languages, 300-302 
Languedoc (lang-dok') Canal, 405 
Lares (la'rez), Roman gods, 139 
La Rochelle (ro-shel'), besieged, 367 



XXVlll 



Index 



Lassalle (la-sal'), socialist, 578 

Latin language, 301 

Latium (la'shi-um), 135 

Lat'vi-a, 711-712 

Laud, Archbishop, 385, 386, 388 

La Vendee (viiN-da'), revolt in, 465 

Lawrence, Thomas, 606-697 

League of Nations, 722-724 

Legends, of Greece, 66-71; of Rome, 
136-138 

Legion, Roman, 145 

Legion of Honor, French, 479 

Legislative Assembly, French, 459- 
462 ; war on Austria and Prussia, 
460; calls National Convention, 462 

Legitimists, French party, 532, 563 

Leipzig (lip'sik), battle of, 487 

Lem'berg, in World War, 658, 661 

Lenin (lyen'm), Bolshevist, 710, 713 

Leo the Great, pope, 224 

Leo III, pope, 233-234 

Leo X, pope, 324, 327 

Leo XIIL pope, 567-569, 576 

Le-6n'i-das, Spartan leader, 112, 113 

Le'o-pold I, king of Belgium, 530-531 

Leopold II, of Belgium, 631 

Leopold, Prince, of HohenzoUern, 557 

Le-pan'to, battle of, 317 

Lep'i-dus, Roman leader, 182, 183 

Les-seps', de, engineer, 587 

Lessing, German author, 419 

Letts, 616, 711-712 

Leviathan, transport, 680 

Ley den (li'den). University of, 370, 
371 ; siege of, 371 

Liaoyang (le-ou'yang'), battle cf, 615 

Liberahsm, beginnings, 495-496; sup- 
pression of, 496T-500; see De- 
mocracy 

Liberals, in England, 585, 586, 591, 592, 
603, 60s 

Li-be'ri-a, 600 

Lib'i-a, Italian colony, 553 

Li-cin'i-us, 145 ; law of, 145 

Liege (le-ezh'), in World War, 655 

Ligny (len-ye'), battle of, 489 

Literature, Babylonian, 51; Hebrew, 
55-56; Greek, 99-104; Roman, 
195-197; medieval, 302-303 ; Eliza- 
bethan, 359-361; in France, 411, 
436-438; in Germany, 419; of Vic- 
torian age, 602 



Lith-u-a'ni-a, republic, 711-712, 703 

Lithuanians, 616, 711-712 

Liv'y, Latin historian; quoted, 136 

Lloyd George, David, British premier, 
603, 604, 701, 725 

Lollards, 322 

Lombards, 211 ; invade It?', , 217, 231 ; 
conquered, 233 

Lom'bar-dy, 494, 540, 548 

London, rebuilt by Alfred, 265; Tower 
o(, 275; Black Death in, 286; fight of 
ambassadors, 412-413 ; peace of, 623 

Long Parliament, 387-393 

Lords, feudal, 238, 239, 240, 244; in 
Germany, 289 

Lords, House of, 277; abolished, 392; 
and Reform Bill, 519-520; defeats 
important bills, 591, 604; criticism 
of, 605 ; deprived of power, 607 

Lorraine (lo-ran'), 236; taken by Ger- 
many, 560; restored to France, 703 

Lo-thair', 236 

Louis IX, king of France, 260, 284-285 

Louis XIII, of France, 366 

Louis XIV, of France, 399, 403-412; 
mjriisters, 405; wars, 406-409; 
cf.urt and etiquette, 410-411, 412 

Louis XV, of France, 442 

Louis XVI, of France, 442-449, 452, 
453 ; flight of, 454-455 ; fall of, 460- 
463 ; guillotined, 463 

Louis XVIII, of France, 4S8, 500 

Louis Philippe (fe-lep'), of France, 529— 
534; in America, 544-545 

Louis the German, 236 

Louis the Pious, 235, 236 

Louisiana, sold to United States, 478 

Lo-yo'la, Ignatius, 344-345 

Lu'den-dorff, German general, 683 

Luf'ber-ry, Lieutenant, 687 

Luneville (lii-na-vel'), treaty of, 477 

Lu-si-td'ni-a, sunk, 674, 675 

Luther, Martin, early life, 323-324; 
theses of, 324, 325; teachings, 326; 
burns pope's bull, 327; at the 
Wartburg, 328-330; reforms service, 
330; character, 332-333, 336 

Lutherans, 330-332, 343, 372 

Ltitzen (liit'sen), battle of, 376 

Luxemburg, invaded, 653 

Lyd'i-a, ancient kingdom, 58 

Ly-san'der, Spartan leader, 118, 119 



Index 



XXIX 



McAd'am, road builder, 503 
Ma-cau'lay, T. B., quoted, 526-527 
Macedonia (mas-e-do'ni-a), country 
and people, 122, 131; wars with 
Rome, 162; under Turkey, 622 
Machine guns, 670, 681 
Mack'en-sen, von, German general, 661 
MacMahon (mak-ma-ON'), Marshal, 

559, 563 
Madagascar, acquired by France, 570 
Ma-dei'ra Islands, under Portugal, 633 
Ma-drid', 484; vmder Napoleon, 485 
Magdeburg (mag'de-boorK), capture of, 

374> 375, 376 
Ma-gel'lan, Ferdinand, explorer, 309 
Ma-gen'ta, battle of, 548 
Mag'na Charta (car'ta), 272-273 
Malta (mol'ta), under Knights of St. 

John, 262 
Mammoth, 16 
Man in the Iron Mask, 413 
Man'chu dynasty, 642 
Man-chu'ri-a, 615, 616, 640 
Man-i-to'ba, 601 

Manoel (ma-nwal'), of Portugal, 634 
Marat (ma-ra'), 452, 450, 466 
Mar'a-thon, battle of, 109-110, in, 120 
Mar'co Po'Io, 308 
Mar-co'ni, inventor, 511, 644 
Mar'cus Au-re'li-us, emperor, 203 
Ma-ren'go, battle of, 477 
Ma-rl'a The-re'sa, of Austria, 424 
Marie Antoinette (ma-re' aN-twa-net'), 

442,443,457-458; guillotined, 463 
Ma'ri-us, Roman leader, 173 
Marl'bo-rough, Duke of, 409 
Marne (marn), battles of, 655-657, 685 
Marquette (mar-ket'). Father, 345 
Marriage, in Babylonia, 40, 47-48; 

in Athens, 87 ; in Rome, 140 
Mars, god of war, 75, 138 
Marseillaise (mar-se-laz'), 460 
Marseilles (mar-salz'), Greeks at, 91 
Marston Moor, battle of, 390 
Mar-tel', Charles, 229-230, 231 
Marx, Karl, socialist author, 576, 577 
Mary, Princess, of Burgundy, 319 
Mary, queen of England, 339, 343, 

351; reign of, 352-353 
Mary II, of England, 398-401 
Mary, queen of Scots, 355-356 
Ma'sa-ryk, Czech leader, 715 



Mau-so-le'um, 74 

Max-i-mil'i-an, emperor, 319 

Mayors of the palace, 231 

Mazarin (ma-za-raN'), Cardinal, 404, 
405 

Mazzini (mat-se'ne), 542, 543, 547 

Mec'ca, 217, 226, 227, 696 

Medes (medz), 41, 43, 44 

Medici (med'e-che), family of, 293 

Medici, Catherine de, 364 

Medicine, in Middle Ages, 305-306 

Medina (ma-de'na), 227 

Melanchthon (me-langk'thun), Philip, 
331 

Mem'phis, city of Egypt, 31, 33 

Men-e-la'us, in Trojan War, 71 

Mer-o-vln'gi-an kings, 215, 231 

Mer'sen, treaty of, 236 

Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a, 38, 45; social con- 
ditions of, 47-48 ; conquered by Mos- 
lems, 227 ; after the World War, 720 

Me-tau'rus, battle of, 158 

Metternich (met'er-niK), Prince, influ- 
ence on Europe, 492-497 ; influence 
in Austria, 539-541 ; flight of, 541 

Metz, siege of, 559, 560 

Meuse-Argonne (muz'-ar-gon'), battle 
of, 690-693 

Mexico, French in, 556 

Michelangelo (mi-kel-an'je-l6), 31 1-31 2 

Microbes, 643 

Middle Ages, 1 1 ; life in, 238-249 ; 
customs, 249; character of, 300; 
languages, 300-302 ; literature, 302- 
303 ; education in, 304-305 ; science 
in, 305-307 ; exploration in, 307-309 ; 
review of, 314-315 

Mil' an, 291 ; taken by Napoleon, 473 

Milan Decree, 483 

Mi-le'tus, Greek city, 108, 109 

Military service, in Egypt, 25-26; in 
Sparta, 79, 80; in Rome, 145, 146, 
147, 148; in Germany, 574; in 
Switzerland, 635 

Miltiades (mil-ti'a-dez), no, in 

Milton, John, poet, 395, 416 

Mi-ner'va, goddess, 75 

Mi-no'ans, 61-62, 63 

Minorities, protection of, 727 

Min'o-taur, legend of, 67-68 

Mirabeau (me-ra-bo'), French leader 
447. 450, 453, 459 



XXX 



Index 



Mo-ham'med, 226-227 

Mohammedanism, origin, 227; doc- 
trine, 227, 625; spread of, 227-229 

Moliere (mo-lyar'), French author, 411 

Molt'ke, von, SSS. SSS, 560 

Mona Lisa (mo'na le'za), painting, 313 

Monarchy, origin, 637; decHne, 637- 
638; iee Absolute government 

Mon'as-ter-ies, 222-223; seized by 
Henry VIII, 342 

Money, of Sparta, 7g; in Rome, 171-172 

Mon-go'li-an race, 13 

Monks, 222-223 

Monopoly, in England, 387 

Monroe Doctrine, 497-498, 580 

Mont-calm', French general, 442 

Mon-te-ne'gro, 624 ; in World War, 
663; after the war, 716, 717 

Mon-tes-quieu', French author, 438 

Mont'fort, Simon de, 276 

Moors (Mohammedans) in Spain, 229, 
293-296 

More, Sir Thomas, 311, 339 

Moreau (mo-ro'), French general, 477 

Morocco, French, 570; dispute, 649 

Morse, S. F. B., inventor, 641. 

Moscow (mos'ko), under Peter the 
Great, 421-422; Napoleon at, 486 

Mos'lems, 227 

Mountain, French party, 464, 465 

Mukden (mook-den'), battle of, 615 

Mummies, 31 

Mum'mi-us, Roman general, 162 

Murat (mii-ra'), king of Naples, 482 

My-ce'nas, 62 

Nantes (nants), Edict of, 366, 408; 
revoked, 409 

Na'ples, under Austria, 409; kingdom, 
482, 496; defeat of Liberals, 497, 
542-543 ; united with Italy, 549 

Na-p6'le-on Bo'na-parte, at Toulon, 
465 ; defends Convention, 469 ; 
early history, 472 ; Italian campaign, 
472—474; in Egypt, 474; seizes' 
French government, 475 ; character, 
475~'476; consul, 476-477; second 
Italian campaign, 477; code, 478; 
emperor, 478-490; Continental- Sys- 
tem, 483 ; overthrown, 487-490 ; re- 
turns from Elba, 488 ; results of his 
career, 490-491 



Napoleon III, of France, 536-539; 
sends army to Italy, 543, 548, 549, 
550; expedition to Mexico, 556- 
557; in war with Prussia, 557-559; 
death, 563 

Nar'va, battle of, 422 

Naseby (naz'bi), battle of, 391 

Na-till', 598 

National Assembly, of France, 446, 
447, 448; work of, 450-457; dis- 
solved, 457 

National Convention, of France, 462- 
469 ; work of, 469 

Navarino (na-va-re'no), battle of, 500 

Navarre (na-var'), Henry of, 366 

Navy, of Athens, in ; of Carthage, 153; 
of Rome, 153, 154; of Great Britain, 
480, 666-667 ; of Germany, 648, 
666-667, 704 ; of United States, 679 

Nebuchadrezzar (neb-u-kad-rez'ar), 43 

Neck'er, French statesman, 444 

Negroes, 13 

Nelson, Admiral, 474, 480, 481, 483 

Ne-o-lith'ic Age, 2-4 

Nep'tune, god, 72, 73 

Ne'ro, emperor, 189 

Netherlands, 319; and Spain, 368- 
371; and France, 407, 409, 482; 
modern kingdom (Holland), 493, 530, 
629-630 

Netherlands, Austrian, 409 ; ceded to 
France, 473 

Netherlands, Dutch, 371, 407, 409; 
see Holland 

Netherlands, Spanish, 368-371, 409 

New'found-land, 601 

Newton, Sir Isaac, 401, 430 

New York, taken by English, 396 

New Zealand, 594, 597, 722 

Ney (na), Marshal, 488 

Ni-cse'a, Council of, 208, 222 

Nice (nes), ceded to France, 549 

Nl'cene Creed, 208 

Nicholas (nik'o-las). Grand Duke, 658, 
661 

Nicholas I, tsar of Russia, 611 

Nicholas II, of Russia, 612, 617; calls 
Peace Conference, 642 ; in revolu- 
tion, 668; killed, 668 

Nigeria (nl-je'ri-a), 600 

Ni'hil-ists, 611 

Nike (ni'ke), statue, 97 



Index 



XXXI 



Nile River, 23, 27, 34; battle of, 474 

Nm'e-veh, 41-43, 45 

No-bel' prizes, 707 

Norman Conquest of England, 267 ; 

results of, 267, 269 
Nor'man-dy, 266 
Normans, 266, 267 
North German Confederation, 555 
Northmen, 212, 237, 266, 297, 627 
Nor-thum'ber-land, Duke of, 343, 351, 

352 
Norway, 297 ; in Congress of Vienna, 

494,495; modern, 627-629 
Numantia (nu-man'shi-a), siege of, 163 

O'Con'nell, Daniel, 515 

Oc-ta'vi-us, 1 81-183; iee Augustus 

Odoacer (o-do-a'ser), 214, 215 

Od'ys-sey, 99 

Old Age Pension Law, British, 603-604 

Old Catholic sect, 575 

Old Sarum, 516 

Old Testament, 53-54, 55 

0-lym'pi-an games, 75-76, 100, 122; 

modern revival of, 77 
0-lym'pus, Mt., 66, 72 
On-ta'ri-o, 601 
Or'a-cles, 75, 90 
Orange, House of, 493 
Orange Free State, 598 
Orangemen, 399 
Ordeal, 273-274 
Oriental history, 23-58 
Or-lan'do, premier of Italy, 701 
Or'le-ans, House of, 529 ; party of, 531, 

563 
Orleans, siege of, 287 
Oscar II, king of Sweden, 629 
■ 0-sI'ris, Egyptian god, 32 
Os'tra-cism, 120 
Os'tro-goths, 211, 215, 217 
Otto the Great, 250, 251 
Ot'to-man Empire, 619; see Turkey. 
Oxford University, 304, 338 
O'ya-ma, Japanese general, 615 

Paderewski (pa-de-ref'ske), 708-709 

Pa-lat'i-nate, War of the, 407 

Pa-le-o-Iith'ic Age, 2-4 

Pal'es-tine, 52-53 ; conquered by Mos- 
lems, 228; during Crusades, 255- 
263 ; in World War, 669 ; after the 
war, 720-721 



Pan'the-on, Roman, 199 

Pa'pa-cy, beginnings, 224; temporal 
power of, 231-232; weakened, 251, 
321 ; popes elected by cardinals, 
253 ; later relations with monarchs, 
254, 255; at Avignon, 293; in 
Great Schism, 320-321; and France, 
478 ; and Napoleon, 484 ; and Italy, 
542-543, 549-551 ; and Germany, 
575-576; papal infaUibility, 575 

Pa'pal States, 231, 291, 540, 543; 
loss of, 549, 550 

Paper, in ancient Egypt, 35-36; in 
Middle Ages, 248 

Pa-py'rus, 35-36, 64 

Par'is, son of Priam, 71 

Paris, beautified by Philip, 284; Uni- 
versity of, 3 J4, 305 ; description of 
(about 1600), 364, 365; in French 
Revolution, 448-449, 452, 453 ; and 
fall of monarchy, 460-462 ; captured 
(1814), 487; in 1830 revolution, 
528; siege of (1870-1871), 559; in 
World War, 655, 685; Peace Con- 
ference (1919), 701 

Paris, Count of, 563 

Parkes, Sir Henry, 596 

Parliament (par'li-ment), beginnings of, 
276, 277; Model, 276; Reformation, 
341 ; under Elizabeth, 355 ; under 
James I, 382 ; under Charles I, 
383-385 ; Long, 387-393 ; Rump, 391 ; 
dismissed by Cromwell, 392, 393 ; 
under Charles II, 396-397 ; Cavalier, 
396 ; under William III, 399-401 ; 
reforms in, 515-520, 526, 588, 607 

Par'nell, Charles S., 591 

Par'the-non, 96-97, 98 

Pas'cal, French philosopher, 411 

Pasteur (pas-tur'), scientist, 643 

Patricians (pa-trish'anz), 141-142 

Patrick, Saint, 224 

Paul, Saint, 188 

Peace Conference, at the Hague, 642 ; 
at Paris, 701 

Peasants, in Middle Ages, 240-242, 
244, 248-249; Russian, 612, 613 

Pe'dro II, emperor of Brazil, 633 

Peel, Sir Robert, 525, 584, 587 

Pe-king', in Boxer revolt, 640 

Peloponnesian (pel-o-po-ne'shan) War, 
103, 116 



XXXll 



Index 



Pe'lops, legend of, 67 

Peninsular War, 485 

Pep'in, ruler of the Franks, 231 

Per'ga-mum, kingdom, 163 

Pericles (per'i-klez), 93-95, 96, 117 

Pericles, Age of, 95-106 

Perry, Commodore, visits Japan, 614 

Persecutions, 189, 205, 206 

Per-sep'o-lis, destruction of, 129 

Per'shing, General John J., 680, 691 

Persia, the Persian Empire, 44-45 ; 
. wars with Greece, 108-115; con- 
quered by Alexander, 125-129; con- 
quered by Moslems, 227; after the 
World War, 722 

Persians, ancient, 44-45 

Petain (pa-taN'), French general, 665 

Peter, Saint, 188 

Peter the Great, of Russia, 419-423 

Peter the Hermit, 256 

Petition of Right, 384-385 

Petrarch (pe'trark), poet, 310-311 

Petrograd (pye-tro-graf), 422 ; mas- 
sacre at, 617-618; in Russian Revo- 
lution, 668 

Pharaoh (fa'ro), 29, 30 

Pha'ros at Alexandria, 74 

Phar-sa'lus, battle of, 178, 180 

Phid'i-as, sculptor, 72, 74, 95, 97, 98 

Philip II, king of MacedoHia, 104, 107, 
122-123 

Philip II, king of Spain, 352, 356; and 
Spanish Armada, 356-357 ; in Nether- 
lands, 369 

Philip Augustus (Philip II), king of 
France, 284; in third crusade, 258, 
259; at Bouvines, 272 

Philip the Fair (Philip IV), of France, 285 

Phi-lip' pi, battle of, 182 

Phoenicia (fe-nish'i-a) , 56-57, 64 

Phoenix, fabulous bird, 376 

Piave (pya'va) battle, 669 

Pic'ar-dy, battle of, 683, 690 

Picts, of Scotland, 217-218 

Pilgrims, 370, 380, 383 

Pilsudski (pel-sood'ske), Joseph, 708 

Pin'dar, Greek poet, 99, 100, 125 

Pirates, in Roman history, 173 

Pisa (pe'sa), council of, 321 

Pitt, William, 429 

Pitt, William (the younger), 477, 516; 
and Ireland, 589; and Canada, 601 



Pi'us IX, pope, 542, 550, 576 

Plantagenets (plan-taj'e-nets), 270-273 

Plas'sey, battle of, 428 

Pla-tae'a, battle of, 115 

Pla'to, Greek philosopher, 95, 106 ; 
quoted, 6 

Plebeians (ple-be'yanz), 141, 142; 
rise of, 144-145 

Plebiscite (pleb'i-sit) areas, 704 

Plin'y, Latin author, 196 

Plu'tarch (ploo'tark), Greek author, 
196-197; quoted, 94 

Plu'to, god, 72-73 

Poitiers (pwa-tya'), battles of, 229, 286 

Poland, origin, 297 ; defeats Turks, 
317; in Counter Reformation, 346; 
partition of, 424-425 ; under Na- 
poleon, 482 ; and Congress of Vienna, 
494, 495 ; incorporated with Russia, 
531; revolt, 616; invaded by Ger- 
mans, 661 ; after the World War, 
703-704, 707-709 

PoUshed Stone Age, 2-4 

Po'lo, Mar'co, 308 

Pol-tii'va, battle of, 422 

Po-lyb'i-us, historian, 157, 162, 195 

Pompeii (pom-pa'ye), destroyed, 196 

Pom'pey the Great, 173-174, 177, 178 

Pope, 224; see Papacy 

Port Arthur, 615, 616, 640 

Portsmouth, peace of, 616 

Por'tu-gal, and Rome, 163; revolt in, 
496, 497; modern, 633-634; re- 
public, 634 ; in World War, 667 

Postage, in Great Britain, 511 

Pottery, 8, 18; Greek, 89 

Prague (prag), capital of Czecho- 
slovakia,, 716 

Praxiteles (prak-sit'e-lez), 95, 98 

Prehistoric man, 1-20; stages of de- 
velopment, 2-7 ; in Europe, 15-19 

Premier, British, powers of, 517-518; 
French, powers of, 564 

Presbyterian Church, 343 ; creed, 390 

Pressburg, treaty of, 480 

Pretenders, to English throne, 348, 427 

Pri'am, king of Troy, 71 

Prices, rise of, 701 

Pride's Purge, 391 

Printing, invention of, 313-314 

Privileged classes, in France, 434- 
435; renounce rights, 451 



Index 



XXXlll 



Prometheus (pro-me'thus), 7, 69 

Pro-ser'pi-na, goddess, 73 

Protestants, origin, 331 ; divided, 
335, 347 ; faith of, 347 

Provinces, Roman, 170-172 

Prussia, rise of, 415-419; war with 
France (1792), 460; invaded by Na- 
poleon, 481 ; war with Napoleon, 487 ; 
reforms in, 492 ; territory increased 
(1815), 493-494; revolt of 1848, 543; 
in Seven Weeks' War, 550, SS4-SSS, 
556; war with Denmark, 554; war 
with France (1870), 557-561 ; in Ger- 
man Empire, 560, 571-573 

Przemysl (pshem'ishl-y'), siege of, 661 

Ptolemy (tol'e-mi) XII, of Egypt, 178 

Publicans, Roman, 171 

Pu'rdc Wars, 152-161; First, 153-157; 
Second, 157-160; Third, 1 60-1 61 

Puritans, 379-380, 383, 386; in Res- 
toration, 395, 396 

Pym, John, 388, 389, 390 

Pyramids, of Egypt, 33, 74; battle of 
the, 474 

Pyrrhus (pir'us), war with Rome, 
150-151 

Quakers, 396, 400 
Que-bec', battle of, 429, 601 
Queen Anne's War, 407 

Ra, Egyptian god, 31 

Races of men, 12-13 

Racial problems, 726 

Racine (ra-sen'), French author, 411 

Radium, discovered, 645 

Railroads, beginnings, 510-511; Si- 
berian, 609, 610, 615; Bagdad, 650 

Ramses (ram'sez) II, 29, 30 

Raph'a-el, artist, 312 

Reds, 711, 713; see Bolsheviki 

Reform Bills, British, 518-520, 526- 
527, 588, 607 

Reformation, beginnings, 319-320; 
causes, 320; leaders of, 321-330; 
spread of, 330-332 ; in Switzerland, 
335; in England, 341-343; in 
northern lands, 343-344; Counter 
Reformation, 344-347 ; general view 
of, 348 

Reg'u-lus, Roman leader, 154 

Reichstag (riKs'taK), 572-573 ; new, 706 



Religion, early, 18; in Egypt, 30-32; 
in Assyria, 49-50; in Persia, 50-51; 
Hebrew, 53, 55; of Greeks, 71-75, 
88; of Rome, 138-140; of Carthage, 
153; of Teutons, 210; of Arabs, 
226-227; see Christianity and Mo- 
hammedanism 
Religious wars, first, 331-332; Hugue- 
not Wars, 363-368 ; in Netherlands, 
368-371; Thirty Years' War, 372-378 
Renaissance (ren-e-saNs'), 309-314; 
leaders of, 310-311; art, 311-312; 
cathedrals, 313; review of, 314-315; 
and Reformation, 320 
Republicans, French party, 532, 534 
Restoration, in England, 395-398 
Revolution, in England, 397-398; 
in France, 433-471, see French 
Revolution ; American, 441-442, 639 ; 
of 1830, 528-531; of 1848, 531, 
533, 539-544; century of, 638-640 
Revolutionary Tribunal, French, 466 
Rheims (remz or raNs), 2S7-288, 669 
Rhodes (rodz). Colossus at, 74; under 
Knights of St. John, 262 ; ceded to 
Italy, 718 
Rhodes, Cecil J., 599 
Rhodesia (ro-de'zhi-a), 600 
Richard I, the Lion-hearted, king of 
England, 270-271 ; in third crusade, 
258, '259; in captivity, 278 
Richard III, of England, 337, 348 
RicheHeu (re-she-lyu'), 366-368, 377 
Rick'en-back-er, airman, 687 
Rienzi (ri-en'ze), ruler of Rome, 293 
Riga (re'ga), captured, 668 
Rights of Man, declaration, 45 r 
Roads, Roman, 146-147; English, 503 
Robber Knights, 245, 295 
Robert, duke of Normandy, 266 
Robespierre (ro-bes-pyar'), 454, 459, 

467, 468 
Rohan (ro-aN'), Cardinal de, 457, 458 
Ro'land, French hero, 302 
Roland (ro-laN'), Madame, 466 
Roman Catholic Church, see Catholic 

Church 
Roman Empire, 184-214; under Au- 
gustus, 186-187; other emperors, 
189, 203, 205-208; life in, 189-195, 
201-204; division of, 212; fall of, 
214.; see also Eastern Empire 



XXXIV 



Index 



Roman law, ig7, 217 

Roman literature, 195-197 

Romance languages, 300-301 

Romanov (ro-ma'nof) dynasty, 424 

Romans, i, 15; customs of, 140-142; 
classes of, 141-142 ; life of, 165-166, 
167; poor, 192; sports of, 194; 
character, 194; literature of, 195-197 

Rome, ancient, 133-214; growth, 133; 
legends of, 136-138; founded, 130- 
137; hills of, 1 3 7' religion and so- 
ciety, 138-142; government, 142- 
14s; army, 145-148; roads, 146; 
conquests, 149-165; burned, 150; 
and Carthage, 153; motives of con- 
quest, 1 61-162; introduces Greek 
culture, 167-168; provinces, 170- 
172; civil wars, 173-183; empire, 
184-214; the city, 199-201; fall 
of, 214-215; under Rienzi, 293; 
under Mazzini, 543 ; united with 
Italy, 550 

Rom'u-lus and Re'mus, 136-137 

Romulus Au-gus'tu-lus, 214 

Rontgen (rdnt'gen), scientist, 645 

Roon (ron), Prussian war minister, 560 

Roosevelt, President, suggests Russo- 
Japanese peace conference, 616 

Roses, Wars of, 337 

Rosetta (ro-zet'a) stone, 29, 35, 474 

Rough Stone Age, 2-4, 10 

Roumania (roo-ma'ni-a), 620; inde- 
pendence, 622; in Balkan War,. 
624; in World War, 663; 682, 
after the war, 695, 713-714 

Roundheads, 389 

Rousseau (roo-s6'), author, 437-438 

Ru'bi-con, Caesar crosses, 178 

Ru'dolph, emperor, 290 

Rump Parliament, 391, 392 

Rupert, Prince, 390 

Rurik, in Russia, 297 

Russell, Lord John, 519 

Russia, origin, 297; rise of, 419-424; 
war with Napoleon, 480, 481, 485- 
487 ; and Congress of Vienna, 494 ; 
in Holy Alliance, 496; aids Greece, 
500; Crimean War, 547, 556, 621; 
expansion of, 609-610 ; government 
of, 610; reforms, 611-612; peasants, 
612-613; war with Japan, 613- 
6i6i Russianizing the provinces, 



616-617; uprising of 1905, 617- 
6ig; wars with Turkey, 621-623; 
in World War, 652, 658-661 ; revolu- 
tion of 1917, 667-669; peace with 
Germany, 682 ; after the war, 709- 
713, 724 
Russo-Japanese War, 613-616 

Sabines (sa'binz), 137 

Sadowa (sa'do-vii), battle of, 550, 

555, 5S6 
Sa-gun'tum, ally of Rome, 157 
St. Bartholomew, massacre of, 364-366 
St. He-le'na, Napoleon at, 490 
St. John, Knights of, 262 
St. Mihiel (saN-me-yel'), battle of, 690 
St. Petersburg, 422; massacre at, 

617-618 
St. So-phi'a, Cathedral of, 216, 217 
Sakhalin (sa-Ka-lyen'), island, 616 
Sal'a-din, 258, 259 
Sal'a-mis, battle of, 114-115, 120 
Salisbury (s61z'ber-i), Marquis of, 353, 

590, sgi, 603 
Salonica (sa-lo-ne'ka), 663 
Sam'nite Wars, 150, 165 
San Stefano (sta'fa-no), treaty of, 587 
Sanskrit, 14 
Sappho (saf'6), 99 
Saracens (sar'a-senz), 233, 237, 262 
Sarajevo (sa'ra-ya-vo), 651 
Sardinia-Piedmont, 540, 542, 546, 547 
Sarre (sar) Basin, 703 
Saturn, god, 453 
Sa-voy', 546, 549 

Saxons, 211, 218; conquered by Charle- 
magne, 232-233 ; converted, 233 ; 

in Britain, 264 
Sax'o-ny, kingdom, 480; territorial 

loss in 1815, 493-494; in German 

Empire, 572 
Scan-di-na'vi-a, 296-297, 343, 626-629 
Schiller (shil'ler), author, 419 
Schism (siz'm), Great, 320-321 
Schools, in Babylonia, 46-47; in 

Athens, 85, 86 ; Roman, 140— 141 ; 

medieval, 304; see also Education 
Schurz (shoorts), Carl, 544 
Science, in Egypt, 34; medieval 305- 

306, 310; modern progress, 642-645 
Scipio (sip'i-6) iE-mil-i-a'nus, 161, 163 
Scipio Af-ri-ca'nus, 157, 159, 168 



Index 



XXXV 



Scotland, converted, 225; Reforma- 
tion in, 343 ; united with England, 
379> 383 ; under Cromwell, 392 ; 
under William and Mary, 399 

Scots, of Ireland, 218 

Scott, Walter, author, 602 

Sculpture, Egyptian, 34; Babylonian, 
51; Greek, 97-98; medieval, 312 

Se-dan', battle of, 559 ; in World War, 
691, 692 

Sedan chair, 434 

Semites (sem'its), 14, 41 

Sempach (zem'paK), battle of, 290 

Senate, Roman, 142-143, 173-179, 
1 85; abolished, 205 

Sen'e-ca, author, 196 

Senegal (sen-e-goF), French, 570 

September massacres, 462 

Serbia, gains independence, 620, 622 ; in 
Balkan Wars, 623-624 ; conflict with 
Austria, 651-652 ; in World War, 
662, 663, 682; after the war, 716 

Serbs, 298, 620, 621, 716-718 

Serfdom, 240-242 ; abolished in Ger- 
many, 492; in Russia, 611 

Settlement, Act of, 400, 426 

Seven Bishops, trial of, 397-398 

Seven Weeks' War, 550 

Seven Wonders of the World, 74 

Seven Years' War, 429 

Se-ve'rus, Alexander, emperor, 204 

Shakespeare, William, 359-361, 383 

Shantung (shan'toong') question, 723 

Ship money, in England, 387, 388 

Si-be'ri-a, 609 

Siberian railway, 609, 610, 615 

Sicilies (sis'i-Iiz), Kingdom of Two, 
540 ; revolt in, 542-543 ; see Naples 

Sicily, Greeks in, 91 ; Athenian ex- 
pedition against, 118, 119; during 
Punic Wars, 153-155; taken by 
Saracens, 237 

Siegfried (seg'fred), German hero, 303 

Sienkiewiez (shen-kya'vich), Henryk, 
707 

Sieyes (sya-yes'). Revolutionary leader, 
4SO, 459 ; consul, 476 

Silesia (si-le'shi-a), taken by Prussia, 418 

Sim'o-ny, 252, 253 

Sims, Admiral WilHam S., 679 

Sinn Fein (shin fan) party, 725 

Slavery, 5; in Greece, 82, 83, 84; in 



Rome, 140, 167, 190-191; in modern 
times, 520-521; in Great Britain, 
521-522 
Slavs, 237, 297, 298, 302 ; see also 

Russia, Serbs, etc. 
Llo-vaks', 715 

Slovenes (slo-venz'), 298, 716-718 
Smuts (smoots), Jan C., 723 
Smyr'na, ceded to Greece, 719 
Sobieski (so-byes'ke), king of Poland, 317 
Social Contract, by Rousseau, 437-438 
Socialism, doctrine, 576-577 
Socialists, in France, 534, 535 ; in Ger- 
many, 576-578' in World War, 655; 
in Russia, 668, see also Bolsheviki 
Socrates (sok'ra-tez), 95, 103, 104-106 
SoKerino (s61-fe-re'no), battle of, 549 
Sol'o-mon, king, 54 
So'lon, 58, 82 ; reforms of, 83 
Somaliland (so-ma'le-land), 600 
Somme (som), battle of the, 665, 669 
Sophocles (sof'o-klez), 95, 101-102 
South Africa, in British Empire, 593, 

597-590 ; Union of, 598 
South America, 497, 636 
Soviet (s6-vyet') government, 710 
Spain, conquered by Rome, 163; 
Visigoths in, 213; early history, 
293-295; Moors (Mohammedans) in, 
229, 293-296; kingdom of, 295; 
Inquisition in, 295-296, 345, 368, 
369; under Charles V, 319; Ref- 
ormation in, 345-346; Armada, 
356-357; and Netherlands, 368- 
371; and Bourbons, 407-409, 496; 
and Napoleon, 484-485 ; revolts in, 
496 ; monarchy restored, 497 ; loss 
of American colonies, 497 ; offers 
crown to Leopold, 557 ; modern, 
631-633 
Spanish Succession, War of, 407-409 
Sparta, 65, 75-80; war against Athens, 

116-119 
Spar'ta-cans, German party, 705, 706 
Spar'ta-cus, revolt of, 191, 197-198 
Spartans, customs of, 78-80 
Spenser, Edmrmd, poet, 359 
Sphinx, in Egypt, 33 
Spinning jenny, 431-432, 504-505 
Star Chamber, Court of, 387, 388 
States-General, French, 444-446 
Steam engine, 431, 503-505 



XXXVl 



Index 



Steamship, 509, 510 

Steel, manufacture of, 644 

Stein (shtin). Baron, 492 

Stephen (ste'v'n), preaches crusade, 260 

Stephenson (ste'ven-son), George, 510, 

Stone Age, 2 

Stonehenge (ston'henj), 19-20 

Storthing (stor'tiiog), in Norway, 628 

Streltsi (strel'tse), 421 

Stuart dynasty, 379 

Student life in Middle Ages, 304-305 

Submarine, 667, 672-674; campaign, 

676-677 
Su-dan', Anglo-Egyptian, 600 
Suez Canal, 587, 599 
Sul'la, Roman leader, 173 
Su-me'ri-ans, 39 ; writing of, 46 
Superstition, Roman, 140; of Middle 

Ages, 306-307 
Supremacy, Act of, 341-342 
Susa (soo'sa), Persian capital, 45 
Suzerain, of feudal lord, 238-240, 244 
Sweden, 297 ; in Thirty Years' War, 
375-377; under Charles XII, 422; 
and Napoleon, 482 ; and Congress 
of Vienna, 494; modern, 627-629 
Swiss guards, in Paris, massacred, 461 
Switzerland, 290; independence of, 
290, 377; Reformation in, 335- 
336 ; under Napoleon, 482 ; and Con- 
gress of Vienna, 494 ; reforms of 1830, 
531; modern, 634-636 
Syr'a-cuse, in Sicily, 91, 118 
Syria, conquered by Egypt, 29; by 
Assyria, 41; by Rome, 162; by 
Moslems, 228; after the World War, 
697, 720 

Tacitus (tas'i-tus), historian, 196 
Taft, Ex-President, favors League of 

Nations, 723 
Tal'ley-rand, French statesman, 493 
Tanks, 669, 670, 671 
Ta-ren'tum, war with Rome, 150-151 
Tar-quin'i-us Su-per'bus, 137, 142 
Tartars, invasion of, 297 
Telegraph and telephone, 511, 644 
Tell, William, 290 
Tennis court, oath of the, 446-447 
Tennyson, Alfred, 602 
Ter'ence, Latin dramatist, 195 



Terror, in France, 465-468 

Test Act, 515 

Tetzel, John, 324 

Teu'to-burg forest, battle of the, 187 

Teu-ton'ic Knights, order of, 262 

Teu'tons, i, 15; customs, 210-212; 
as invaders, 218; conversion, 222; 
languages, 301 

Thackeray, William, 602 

Theater, Greek, loo, loi ; Eliza- 
bethan, 360 

Thebes (thebz), in Egypt, 27, 33 

Thebes, in Greece, 67, 122, 125 

Themistocles (the-mis'to-klez), in, 114, 
120 

The-od'o-ric, Ostrogoth leader, 215 

The-o-do' si-US the Great, 209, 212 

Ther-mop'y-lae, battle of, 11 2-1 13 

Theseus (the'sus), Greek hero, 67 

Thiers (tyar), 530, 532-533; presi- 
dent of France, 563 

Third Estate, in France, 435 

Thirty Years' War, 372-378 

Thrace, ceded to Greece, 719 

Thucydides (thu-sld'i-dez), historian, 
95, 102-103; quoted, 93 

Ti-be'ri-us, in Germany, 187; em- 
peror, 189 

Ti-ci'nus, battle of the, 157 

Ti'gris River, 38 

Til'ly, Count, 373, 375, 376 

Tilsit (til'zit), treaty of, 481, 482 

Tl'tus, emperor, 189 

To'go, Admiral, 615 

Toleration Act, 400 

Tories, in England, 397, 516, 517 

Tortoise formation, 160 

Toulon (too-loN'), revolt of, 465 

Tournament, 246-247 

Tours (toor), battle of, 229-230, 231 

Tower of London, 275 

Trade, see Commerce 

Trade unions, 508 

Traf-al-gar', battle of, 480-481, 483 

Tra'jan, emperor, 189 

Transportation, in eighteenth century, 
502; improvements in, 508-511; in 
China, 641 

Transvaal (trans-val'), 598 

Tra-si-me'nus, Lake, battle of, 157 

Tre'bi-a, battle of the, 157 

Treitschke (trich'ke). Professor, 647 



Index 



xxxvu 



Trench warfare, 658, 670 

Trent, ceded to Italy, 550, 718 

Trent, Council of, 346 

Trial, early forms of, 273-276 

Triennial Act, 388, 400, 401 

Trieste (tre-est'), ceded to Italy, 550, 
718 

Triple Alliance, 553, 575, 650, 654 

Triple Entente (aN-taNt'), 650 

Trip'o-li, occupied by Italy, 553 

Trireme (tri'rem), in, 115, 154 

Triumph, Roman, 148 

Triumvirate, First, 175, 177; Second, 
182, 183 

Trojan War, 70-71 

Troppau (trop'ou), Congress of, 497 

Trotz'ky, Bolshevist, 710, 711 

Troubadours (troo'ba-doorz), 302 

Troy, 62, 71, 125 

Tsar, of Russia, 610, 611 

Tu'dor dyni-sty, 337, 379 

Tuileries (twel-re') palace, 453, 461 ; 
burned, 562 

Tunis, SS3, 569 

Turgot (tiir-go'), statesman, 444 

Turkey, early history, 317, 619; and 
Greece, 498-500; war with Italy, 
553 ; war with Russia, 587, 621-622 ; 
declining power, 619; provinces of, 
620; rule of, 621; Crimean War, 
621-622; Balkan Wars, 623-624; 
and Germany, 650; in World War, 
661-662, 688-689; after the war, 
719-720 

Turks, during Crusades, 257, 262 ; take 
Constantinople, 317; other con- 
quests, 317, 331, 619; see Turkey. 

Two Sicilies, kingdom, 540; revolt in, 
542-543 ; see Naples 

Tyler, Wat, uprising of, 286 

Tyre (tir), siege of, 127 

Ukraine (u'kran), 668, 712-713 

Ul'ster, 589, 592, 593 

Ulysses (u-hs'ez), 71, 99 

United Netherlands, 407 ; see Holland 

United States, pioneer in democracy, 
638; in World War, 675-682, 685- 
687, 690-696; rejects treaty with 
Germany, 723 

Universities, medieval, 304-305 

Urban II, pope, 256 



Urban VI, pope, 320 

Utrecht (u'trekt), treaty of, 409 

Va'lens, emperor, 212 

Va-le'ri-an, emperor, 205 

Vandals, 211, 213, 217 

Varennes (va-ren'), Louis XVI at, 454- 

455 
Va'rus, Roman general, 187 
Vassal, feudal, 238, 239, 240, 244 
Vat'i-can, 550-551 
Vauban (vo-baN'), engineer, 406 
Venice (ven'is), rise of, 291-292 ; and 

Napoleon, 473, 480; under Austria, 

494, 540, 549; revolt of 1848, 542- 

543 ; united to Italy, 550 
Venizelos (ven-e-za'los), 718 
Ve'nus, goddess, 74, 98 
Vercingetorix (vur-sin-jet'o-riks), 176 
Verdun (ver-diiN'), treaty of, 236; 

battle of, 664-665 
Ver'gil, poet, 136, 195, 196 
Ve-ro'na, congress of, 497 
Verres (ver'ez), Roman governor, 171 
Versailles (ver-sa'y'), palace, 410-411; 

States-General at, 446 ; Paris mob 

at, 452-453; William I crowned at, 

560; Peace Conference of 1919, 701 
Vespasian (ves-pa'zhi-an), emperor, 189 
Vesta, goddess, 138-139 
Vestal virgins, 139 
Ve-su'vi-us, eruption of, 196 
Victor Em-man'u-el II, king of Italy, 

546, 548, 549; monument, 552 
Victoria, queen of Great Britain, 524, 

595, 602-603 
Vienna, besieged, 317, 331; treaty of, 

485; congress of, 487, 488, 492-495; 

revolt in, 541 
Vill, 240 
Villafranca (vel-lii-frang'ka), peace of, 

549 
Vimy (ve-me') Ridge, battle of, 682 
Vinci (ven'che), Leonardo da, 312 
Virginia, named, 353; settled, 383 
Vi-ri'a-thus, 163 
Visigoths (viz'i-goths), 211; capture 

Rome, 212-213; at Chalons, 214; 

driven from Gaul, 215; conquered 

by Moslems, 229, 233 
Volta (vol'ta) inventor, 644 
Voltaire (vol-tar'), author, 436-437, 418 



XXXVIU 



Index 



Wagram (va'gram), battle of, 485 

Wal-den'sians, 284 

Wallenstein (wol'en-stln), 373-375, 
376, 377 

Wal-loons', 368, 371, 630 

Wal'pole, Sir Robert, 426-427 

Wandering Jew, 307 

War of Liberation, 487, 4g2, 495 

Warbeck, Perkin, 348-349 

Warsaw, capital of Poland, 661, 707, 
709 

Warsaw, duchy of, 482, 486, 494 

Wat Tyler rebellion, 2 86 

Wa-ter-loo', battle of, 489-490 

Watt, James, inventor, 431, 503 

Weapons, in modern warfare, 670-672 

Weaving, 58; in England, 358; inven- 
tions for, 431-432, 504-505 

Wellesley (welz'li). Sir Arthur, 485; 
see Wellington 

Wellesley, Richard, 595 

WelUngton, Duke of, 485, 487, 489; 
premier, 515, 517 

Wentworth, Thomas, 385, 388 

West'min-ster Confession, 390 

West-pha'U-a, treaty of, 372, 376-378, 
416; kingdom of, 482 

Wex'ford, massacre at, 392 

.Whigs, in England, 397, 516, 517 

Whitby Abbey, 225 ' 

Whitney, Eli, inventor, 505 

Wilhemina (vil-hel-me'na), queen of 
Holland, 629 

William I, the Conqueror, king of 
England, 266-269, 277 

William III, of England (WilUam III 
of Orange), 398-401, 407 

William IV, of Great Britain, 519, 524 

WiUiam I, king of Prussia, 554, 557; 
emperor of Germany, 560, 574; 
death, 579 

William II, of Prussia and the German 
Empire, 579-580, 648; precipitates 
World War, 652 ; flees into Holland, 
694 ; after the war, 704, 705 

WilUam the Silent, 369-371 

Wilson, Woodrow, President, quoted, 
495; neutrality, 675; breaks with 
Germany, 676; Fourteen Points of, 
694; at Peace Conference, 701-702, 
722, 723 

Winkelried (ving'kel-ret) , Arnold, 290 



Wireless telegraphy, 644, 645 

Wittenberg (vit'en-berK), University 
of, 324; Castle Church of, 324, 325; 
Luther at, 328 

Wolsey (wool'zi). Cardinal, 338, 339, 
340, 341 

Woman, in Babylonia, 40; in Sparta, 
79; in Athens, 84, 85; Moham- 
medan, 227; in Middle Ages, 247; 
in factories and mines, 523 ; suffrage, 
597 ; Russian, 612 

Wonders of the World, seven, 74 

Worcester (woos'ter), battle of, 392 

Workingman's Compensation Act, 
British, 603 

World War, historical background, 
646-651; beginnings, 651-659; in 
1915-1917, 660-674; America in, 
675-682; end of, 682-694; results, 
698-727 ; scope and losses, 698; dev- 
astation, 699-701 ; treaties ending, 
702-705, 719, 723, 726-727 

Worms (vorms). Concordat of, 254; 
diet of, 327-328 

Wrangel, Baron, 711 

Wright, Wilbur, 672 

Writing, i, lo-ii; Egyptian, 34-35; 
Sumerian, 46; Phoenician, 56-57; 
Minoan, 61, 62 

Wiirttemberg (viir'tem-berK) , king- 
dom, 480; in 1866, 555; in German 
Empire, 572 

Wyc'lif, John, 321-322 

X-army, 695-696 
Xavier (zav'i-er), Francis, 345 
Xenophon (zen'o-phon), 103, 104, 106 
Xerxes (zurk'sez), iii, 112, 113, 114 

Yoke, Roman, 150, 151 

York, Duke of (James II), 396 

Young Turkey, party, 619 

Ypres (e'pr'), battle of, 664 

Yuan Shih-Kai (yoo-an'she-ki'), 642 

Za'ma, battle of, 159 
Zeppelin (tsep-e-len'). Count, 671 
Zeus (zus), god, 67, 68, 72, 76 
Zionist movement, 721 
Zoroaster (zo-ro-as'ter), 50-51 
Zwingli, Ulrich (ool'riK tsving'le), 335- 
336 ; in Holland, 344 



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